The Ideal of University (Budgeting)

Author: (English) Newman, translated by Xu Hui, Gu Jianxin, He Shurong
Publisher:
Publishing Date: 2001-12-01
Features: The Idea of a University is an early and renowned work in the history of Western higher education that systematically, comprehensively, and thoroughly discusses the fundamental theoretical issues of university education. The author, John Henry Newman (1801-1890), was a famous theologian, educator, writer, and linguist of the Victorian era in 19th-century Britain. In 1851, Newman was invited to serve as the first principal of the newly established University of Dublin. In 1852, he delivered a series of lectures in Dublin to promote the university. These lectures were later revised and combined with other speeches he gave on university education to form The Idea of a University. This translation is based on a selection edited by Maynard A. Yale, which includes several of the original lectures and excerpts from other speeches. Newman was a great advocate of liberal education in the 19th century. When he wrote The Idea of a University, the traditional political, economic, and cultural foundations of liberal education were undergoing transformation: the political revolutions in France and the United States, which began in the late 18th century, proclaimed that everyone should enjoy political freedom; the rise of the Industrial Revolution in Britain enabled people to engage in various occupations and increased their leisure time; on the other hand, with societal progress, the influence of religious society gradually declined, while the social status and impact of science rose, with scientific elites beginning to replace traditional religious elites as the dominant force in society. To adapt to these changes and maintain the interests of their class, the British bourgeoisie turned their attention to higher education. However, universities like Oxford and Cambridge, which represented British higher education, clung to tradition, emphasizing rational cultivation and character development while excluding scientific education. To counter this, British universities adopted a path, establishing new universities and colleges dedicated to scientific education outside the traditional framework, giving rise to what was known as the "New University Movement." These new universities emulated the Scottish model, being market-driven, with low fees, low admission requirements, no requirement for students to live on campus, and the exclusion of religious education. The emergence of these new universities threatened the classical humanistic educational tradition that had existed in British higher education for centuries, posing a severe challenge to the traditional British university ideal. At the same time, proponents of utilitarianism and scientism, such as Herbert Spencer, T. H. Huxley, and the Edinburgh Review school, continuously criticized the conservatism and isolation of Oxford and Cambridge, demanding reforms such as the abolition of religious examinations, the incorporation of the findings of natural sciences into university education, the establishment of natural science courses, and the creation of scientific laboratories. The traditional British university ideal was in peril. Against this backdrop, Newman, as a humanist, conducted a rational and comprehensive reflection on the main issues of university education. He grounded his entire argument in his explanation of the nature of the university and his understanding that all knowledge constitutes a complete whole. From a etymological perspective, he believed that "a university is a place where universal knowledge is taught." He advocated that universities should impart various kinds of knowledge equally and comprehensively. Accordingly, he believed that the purpose of university education was twofold. First, university education is intellectual, not moral. The purpose of university education is intellectual training, the development of reason. Second, university education focuses on disseminating and promoting knowledge rather than expanding it. Combining these two aspects, he argued that university education should not only impart knowledge but also focus on cultivating students' intellectual abilities. Since universities are responsible for imparting knowledge and cultivating reason, the key questions are: what knowledge should be imparted and how should reason be cultivated? He believed that university education should provide universal knowledge (truths with general significance) and complete knowledge (which cannot exclude theology from the knowledge taught by professors), rather than narrow, specialized knowledge. The knowledge he referred to included both concrete scientific truths and abstract, scientified philosophical knowledge. He stated, "Knowledge is a state of mind and condition." Therefore, the pursuit of knowledge is inevitably a spiritual pursuit, and the ultimate purpose of spiritual pursuit is the spirit itself. Thus, he advocated, "Knowledge itself is the end." Only by including philosophical knowledge within the scope of knowledge imparted and pursuing knowledge for its own sake can universities better serve intellectual cultivation. In defining the function of the university, he explicitly proposed the separation of scientific research and teaching. Since the university is a place where universal knowledge is taught, it should be established for the imparting of knowledge and for students, with teaching as its sole function. The emphasis on teaching function actually reflects Newman's high regard for the collegiate system of Oxford and Cambridge, though his focus was on knowledge, making his discussion of the collegiate system almost invisible. In summary, in his view, the existence of the university was neither for making people scholarly (non-research-oriented), nor for preparing them for work (non-professional), nor for elevating them to a sacred status (non-moral), but rather for preparing them for the pursuit of knowledge (rational pursuit of knowledge for its own sake), with the true mission of the university being "to cultivate good citizens" and thereby fostering harmonious societal development. Newman articulated these positions in the second to fourth lectures. He was essentially refuting the utilitarianism of secular universities established for the middle class, which only provided specialized education. Based on the understanding that all knowledge constitutes a whole and that the university is a place where universal knowledge is taught, he argued that a university that excludes theology and does not impart universal knowledge cannot truly be called a university. From this perspective, he believed that university education should be designed for liberal education. Newman's liberal education is "the operation of the mind, intellect, and reflection," with the goals of intellectual training, character cultivation, and intellectual development. The embodiment of liberal education is the gentleman, who embodies wisdom, courage, tolerance, and refinement. Pursuing knowledge for the sake of knowledge itself is an important path to this education. He opposed narrow, specialized education in universities, stating, "Knowledge becomes more specialized as it advances, and the more specialized it becomes, the less it is knowledge." In other words, the more specialized and experiential a person's knowledge is, the less knowledgeable they become, and the less free the education is. He used the relationship between "good" and "practical" to argue the relationship between liberal education and specialized education. "What is practical is not always good, but what is good is always practical." Since the purpose of liberal education is intellectual cultivation, and "intellectual cultivation itself is good and its own end," it is also a practical education. Although "practical" and "good" belong to the tool and value levels, respectively, they can be unified. The goals of liberal education and specialized education do not conflict, as liberal education cultivates individuals capable of immediately engaging in related scientific and professional work. Although Newman's liberal education philosophy is not aimed at pursuing utility or practicality, it does not deny its utility and practicality, offering a strong rebuttal to the utilitarian educational view. In the fifth to eighth lectures, Newman primarily discussed the nature of liberal education and its utility and practicality. To achieve this liberal education, in addition to adhering to the principle of pursuing knowledge for its own sake, he advocated that students "should enter the realm of knowledge actively, embrace it, and master it. You must take action, meet the facts head-on. You are not merely here to listen to lectures or read books; you are here for teaching." This teaching exists in the dialogue between you and your teachers. In his ideal university, students should not only learn actively, positively, openly, and interactively but also grasp knowledge from a perspective of universal connection. He advocated establishing connections between new and old knowledge, using means such as analysis, classification, comparison, coordination, matching, and integration to truly internalize new knowledge as an organic part of students' entire knowledge system and achieve intellectual growth. Since students "cannot study every subject open to them," to achieve the teaching goal of providing universal and complete knowledge, he advocated making the university an "educational institution" rather than a "teaching institution," allowing students to live among "representatives of the entire field of knowledge," emphasizing that students should engage in self-education in an atmosphere of intellectual enlightenment filled with universal knowledge. Newman spent over twenty years in Oxford, where the essence of Oxford—its collegiate system, residential system, and tutorial system—became an important part of his university ideal. Additionally, his religious career greatly influenced his university ideal. Newman was an Anglican, but he converted to Roman Catholicism in 1845. He was critical of the emerging universities and colleges of the time that excluded theology. In the preface, he pointed out that the university is independent of the church. However, if it were to be fully fulfilled without the church's help, because the church is necessary for the completeness of the university, theology as religious truth should be an integral part of this complete knowledge system. The involvement of religion would not change the character of the university but would instead make it more stable in fulfilling its intellectual duties. In the ninth lecture, Newman discussed the responsibility of religion to the university, arguing that the university should accept the moral influence of religion to achieve its goals. He also discussed how to appropriately exert this influence. Here, although Newman overemphasized the role of religion in university education and the role of theology in the entire knowledge system, it is evident that he also held the idea of university autonomy. In reality, when he realized that the Pope's appointment as the first principal of the University of Dublin was merely to turn the university into a carefully protected Catholic greenhouse, he resigned his position. Newman's passionate and logical eloquence did not save the fate of the traditional British university ideal. On one hand, Newman's university ideal itself had limitations of its time and personal background. In terms of university functions, he advocated excluding scientific research from the university, failing to see the positive aspects of mutual promotion between research and teaching, and thus not making as comprehensive and positive an evaluation of the relationship between teaching and research as Humboldt did. In addressing the relationship between liberal education and specialized education, Newman stood firmly on the side of liberal education without considering the comprehensive needs of specialized education itself, overlooking the practical needs of the developing social reality, and failing to respond positively to the scientific revolution. Even regarding liberal education itself, he placed great emphasis on classical subjects, especially literature (the last chapter of this edition is about literature), strictly limiting liberal education to intellectual cultivation and excluding the cultivation of virtue (in his view, conscience and virtue could only come from religion). In terms of the constraints on the university, he exaggerated the influence of the church, neglecting the role of the government and the connection with society. In terms of methodology, many of Newman's educational ideas started from assumptions. His possible etymological explanation of the term "university" formed the basis of his arguments, and his discussion of the relationship between liberal education and specialized education was based on the assumption that "intellectual cultivation itself is good," directly affecting the credibility of his ideas. On the other hand, when Newman wrote The Idea of a University, the secularization and specialization of higher education had already become a trend. Moreover, a new university ideal had already formed in Germany and was widely imitated, something Newman was not unaware of. His university ideal could only seek a balance between tradition, reality, and hope. Newman's university ideal covers the nature, purpose, and function of the university, the principles, methods, and content of university education, the relationship between liberal education and specialized education, the relationship between the university and the church, and so on. His university ideal represents a classic liberal education philosophy, with rich and profound intellectual connotations. It is precisely because of this that his university ideal has such enduring vitality, that The Idea of a University continues to have a positive impact on the development of higher education around the world even a hundred years after its publication. After more than 800 years of development, the university has moved out of the "ivory tower," evolving from a marginalized social institution into a central one, becoming the "engine of human society." In recent years, higher education in China has made significant progress, but in the process of rapid development, it has also exposed some profound crises, conflicts, and contradictions. Today, we translate and introduce The Idea of a University precisely because we hope that educators and researchers in China can draw some beneficial insights from this work with profound insights as they consider resolving these crises, conflicts, and contradictions.