Feng Menglong Research

Author: Nie Fusheng
Publisher:
Publishing Date: 2002-12-01
Features: The urbanites, emerging as a new class with economic prosperity, differ significantly from the traditional self-sufficient farmers who "work at dawn and rest at dusk." Their ideas, ways of thinking, behavioral norms, and lifestyles all carry unique characteristics of their class. They keep pace with the trends of the times, lead them, and even create them, serving as the primary living force driving social reform. Although the feudal traditional forces were too strong and overwhelming, these urbanites were brutally suppressed at the very moment they emerged. Or, due to the traditional accumulation within the urbanites themselves, they could not become the backbone of social reform like the urbanites during the Renaissance in the West. However, their role was still quite evident. Below is a brief elaboration.
1. Urban scholars have become the main cultural disseminators influencing the urbanites. Urban scholars refer to those who possess an urban consciousness and live among the urbanites. Their thinking and interests share many similarities with the true lower-class urbanites. Due to their systematic and formal cultural upbringing, they are not only the spiritual leaders of the urbanites and the main leaders and creators of urban cultural life but are also deeply imbued with urban influences. In many aspects, such as lifestyle, aesthetic tastes, attitudes toward life, and values, they are highly consistent with the urbanites. Yuan Hongdao once said, "I am content to be just like the ordinary people" (from Yuan Hongdao Collection). To the traditional scholars, it was said, "Nowadays, scholars no longer pay attention to the discernment of people's words. Truly, as the ancients said, 'I do not know who is a good person in the world, but those who are good to me are good people.' How lamentable!" (Tao Shuangling: Xiao Chaisang Nananlu, Volume 2). In short, scholars and urbanites coexist and influence each other, becoming a bright scene in urban culture.
Although folk literature originates from the grassroots, from the mouths of villagers and the streets, its dissemination still relies on the refinement, compilation, and publication by scholars. As Zheng Zhenduo said, "In the Zhengde edition of Shengshi Xinsheng, and in the Jiajing edition of Ci Lin Zhaiyan and Yongxi Yuefu, we can also find some folk songs. However, their content has been modified by scholars." Therefore, true folk literature has become a joint creation of scholars and urbanites. After the middle period of the Ming Dynasty, scholars' contributions became increasingly prominent, leading to the rise of the vernacular narrative form, known in literary history as the "imitative dialogue."
Scholars who enjoy the pleasures of life and are fond of elegance often engage in activities such as watching plays, drinking, and tasting tea, which are their daily routines. These activities also provide them with the best opportunities to interact with and communicate with the urbanites. They among entertainers and courtesans, indulging in the pleasures of life, and consider this a great joy. Lu Tiancheng described Shen Jing as "possessing a deep understanding of music, dominating both flowers and the moon; fond of poetry, often inviting monks and courtesans to drink with him." He described Gu Dadian as "having courtesans like clouds in his private chambers and a snow-like purity in his music." He described Liang Chenyu as "his beautiful melodies spreading through white mulberry fields, and his new songs sung in brothels." (from Qu Pin, Volume 1). The theater theorist Pan Zhiheng was deeply devoted to the theater, spending decades among the (the, the theater troupe), and his passion for the arts did not diminish with age (from Luanxiao Xiaopin, "Letter to Tang Shicheng"). At that time, it was fashionable for families to maintain their own theater troupes. These scholars were not only enthusiastic audiences but also playwrights and directors. As a result, the connection between scholars and the urban world grew increasingly frequent, and their bond deepened.
When a performer in Zhang Dai's troupe died, he was so grief-stricken that he wrote a eulogy to express his sorrow (from Langquan Wenji, Volume 6, "Eulogy to a Performer"). Over time, scholars gradually became urbanized, and urbanites gradually scholarized, a phenomenon that is not difficult to understand. Due to their many commonalities, the emotions expressed by these scholars resonated deeply with the urbanites, and in many ways, they represented the interests of the urbanites, speaking up for them and advocating justice.
2. They possess a strong sense of participation and self-protection. The sense of participation is the (sprout) of democratic consciousness and the result of the flourishing of humanistic spirit in the Ming Dynasty. First, the urbanite class expanded, and the status of merchants and artisans improved, leading to subtle changes in the social structure. Notably, large merchants, who were once considered the lowest in the four classes, now commanded respect. With their substantial wealth, they influenced prices, controlled markets, intervened in politics, and exerted influence over all aspects of social life, making it impossible for anyone to disregard them. They no longer adhered to the merchant code and even sought the imperial examinations, entering the officialdom. Listen to the advice of a Huizhou merchant to his son: "Our ancestors have been commoners for a long time. Without Confucianism, we cannot resist our clan. Strive, my child, do not imitate the shameless." (Wang Daokun: Taihanji, Volume 67). They actively intervened in social affairs, establishing schools, academies, ancestral halls, and providing aid to impoverished scholars, associating with scholars and artists, earning praise from the world. Together with artisans, they achieved unprecedented social status, to the point where "they sat side by side with scholars and officials, exchanging courtesies" (from Tao An Mengyi, Volume 5, "Various Artisans").
Feng Menglong's compassion and respect for women were also reflected in his interactions with other courtesans. He showed them the most precious kindness in the world, like how he treated Hou Huiqing, understanding, pitying, and caring for them, making them all his close confidantes. They confided in Feng Menglong their sorrows and shared their joys with him. Feng Menglong never forgot the night he bid farewell to Feng Xisheng. The faint moonlight draped like a veil, and they sat by the fire, speaking little, but each word revisited their happy past. They could not bear to part but had no choice. Thank you, Feng Menglong, for leaving us that touching scene: "(Feng Xisheng) was to be married the next day and asked me for a farewell chat. At midnight, I was about to leave, and asked Feng Xisheng, 'Do you still have any unfinished words?'" Feng Xisheng replied, 'I still remember one Dazao Gan and one Wu Ge, but the words I haven't spoken are only this.' So I sang it. Dazao Gan is this, and its Wu Ge goes like this..." Alas, the faces of peach blossoms and people have become a dream. Every time I read these two songs, the sound seems to linger in my ears. Beauties are rare, and this has been mourned throughout the ages. How tragic!" (from Farewell, Part 2, end note).
"Women adorn themselves for those who appreciate them," Feng Xisheng knew that Feng Menglong was almost obsessed with folk songs, so he offered the Dazao Gan and Wu Ge that Feng Menglong was widely collecting as gifts. His deep affection was unmistakable, leaving a lasting impression on Feng Menglong. Similar situations occurred with "Ayuanyuan, who could sing new tunes and enjoyed clear singing" (from Guazhi'er, Volume 3) and "Dong Si, whose singing was extraordinary" (from Guazhi'er, Volume 8). We can say that the smooth publication of Feng Menglong's two folk song collections, Guazhi'er and Shangge, was inseparable from the close cooperation of these lower-class women.
I believe that in addition to the reasons mentioned above, Feng Menglong's passion for associating with courtesans also allowed him to obtain a wealth of folk song and folk tunes. The detailed records in Guazhi'er and Shangge bear witness to this. Many of Feng Menglong's friends indulged in pleasure and were sentimental and flamboyant. Some were as devoted as he was, such as Wuyaji and the famous courtesan Wang Dongsheng, who "formed a bond at first sight and were destined to meet again," but Wang Dongsheng was forced by family obligations to be sold to Su Xiaoxiao in the Zhejiang region when Wuyaji visited her again. Wuyaji's fate deeply moved Feng Menglong, who immediately composed a qu in Song You Fu to support Wuyaji in finding Wang Dongsheng and settling his debt of affection. Others were unfaithful, and Feng Menglong firmly stood on the side of the weaker, defending them and seeking justice for them. For example, Dongshan Liu Sheng and the courtesan Bai Xiaofan were good friends and had secretly engaged in a betrothal. Later, Liu Sheng broke his promise and abandoned Bai Xiaofan. Feng Menglong composed a qu in Qinglou Yuan based on this, which later inspired the creation of Shuang Xiong Ji, with Bai Xiaofan as Huang Suniang and Liu Sheng as Liu Shuang, ultimately moving Liu Sheng to free Bai Xiaofan from her brothel.
Feng Menglong said, "I was young and carried a deep sense of affection, always being completely sincere with my peers, sharing joys and sorrows with them. When I heard of someone's extraordinary hardship or injustice, even if I didn't know them, I would strive to help, or if my efforts were insufficient, I would sigh for days and toss and turn at night. When I met someone who shared my feelings, I would want to kneel before them, but when I met someone who was indifferent, I would use words to guide them, enduring all hardships until they finally agreed. I once jokingly said: If I cannot forget the world after death, I will become a Buddha, and my Buddha name will be 'Buddha of Passion and Joy.'" This is not false—it is a true reflection of Feng Menglong's life journey. His compassion for women stemmed from genuine feelings, completely unlike the Li Jia type in his works.
Because of this, Feng Menglong was passionate about writing biographies for courtesans, some of which include Zhang Run Biography, Aisheng Biography, and Wansheng Biography. In his creation or compilation of San Yan, he included works with courtesans as themes, such as Du Shiniang's Anger in the sinking of the hundred-jeweled box, Zhao Chunwang's Revival of Cao Village, Yutang Chun's Hardship in Seeking a Husband, and The Oil Seller's Exclusive Claim to the Flower Beauty. In Qing Shi and Zhi Nan, he praised them in critiques, singing their heartfelt affection and their heroic spirit of sacrificing life for love.
Feng Menglong was open-minded and smiled at the ups and downs and the warmth and cold of the world. Whenever he went, his radiant smile dispelled the gloom, bringing people joy while unintentionally spreading the seeds of freedom and individuality. The members of the Yun Society, under his influence, "competed to value laughter" and unanimously "chose the youngest as the master of laughter" (Fifth member of the Yun Society: Title of Ancient and Modern Laughs). Why did Feng Menglong adopt this form, considered coarse and unsuitable for the refined, to "entertain himself and others"? In the preface to Ancient and Modern Laughs, he said: "People know that the world cannot be taken lightly, but they do not know that the human heart and customs are ruined by taking things too seriously. Why? In the era of chaos, even a branch of a wild deer could not find the truth to recognize. Yao and Shun had no use for their humility, Tang and Wu had no use for their competition, Confucius and Mo had no use for their teachings, Guan Zhong and Shang Yang had no use for their strategies, Su and Zhang had no use for their eloquence, and Qiao Zhi had no use for their banditry. If so, even after ten thousand generations, the world would not need to sing the 'Three Virtues' (Taigai). Later, those who took things seriously were merely recognizing something beautiful. As soon as there is beauty, there must be something ugly to contrast it. Moreover, what is called 'beautiful' may not truly be so! Let me briefly say, take wealth as an example. Velvet bedding with flowers is not real. Yet, I often see the secular crowd, after reflecting on their own mediocrity, change their faces and transform their intestines once they wear a scholar's hat. They then seek to please beautiful women, further pursuing their vices. There is no other reason except that they believe they are truly wealthy, and the onlookers also believe they are truly wealthy. Who knows that the light of fire and the fire of fire are not enough to withstand a smile from a nobleman. A smile makes wealth false, and the path of arrogance, stinginess, and greed is blocked; a smile makes merit and fame false, and the path of greed, jealousy, and slander is blocked; a smile makes morality false, and the path of hypocrisy and fanaticism is blocked; extending this, a smile makes descendants and family false, and the path of management and worry is blocked; a smile makes mountains and rivers false, and the path of betrayal and aggression is blocked. Even if we return half a lifetime to the era of chaos, why not? Then how can we see that taking things seriously must be right and laughing must be wrong? It is not to say that taking things seriously is worse than laughing, but there has never been anything truly worth taking seriously in the past. Without anything truly worth taking seriously, I only have laughter; without anything truly worth taking seriously and yet wanting to take it seriously, I have even more laughter. There is a wild mushroom called 'Laughing Mushroom' that, if eaten, makes one laugh uncontrollably. People think it is poisonous, but I wish everyone could eat 'Laughing Mushroom' and live a life of laughter. Wouldn't that be a peaceful and trouble-free world for ten thousand generations? Thus, I collected Ancient and Modern Laughs in thirty-six volumes.
The reason I copied Feng Menglong's preface in full is that it contains many valuable insights. The Pedantic Department, The Strange Department, The Absurd Department, The Foolish Department, The Mistake Department, The Inept Department, The Sea of Suffering Department, The Unrhythmical Department, The Habits Department, The Yueqing Department, The Frivolous Department, The Arrogant Department, The Frugal Department, The Extravagant Department, The Dirty Department, The Cruel Department, The Pleasant Department, The Face Department, The Concubine Department, The Advice Department, The Deceptive Department, The Playful Department, The Alert Department, The Teasing Department, The Silent Department, The Rude Department, The Literary Department, The Clever Department, The Talkative Department, The Subtle Department, The Reputation Department, The Miraculous Department, The Crazy Department, The Strange Department, The Non-ethnic Department, and The Miscellaneous Department, covering almost all aspects of society. Feng Menglong's melancholy was not just about personal love; his unrestrained behavior was not just about indulging in life in theaters and wine houses. Here, it seems playful and light, talking and laughing, appearing as a carefree, (crazy) figure, but in reality, he was exploring a rather serious social fate, using sharp eyes to examine the myriad creatures and the strange phenomena in this turbid world; using laughter to expose the pickle jars filled with hypocrisy and greed, and gently brushing away the shadows and disasters brought by ignorance. This was no different from his use of popular novels to "warn people" and "warn the world." For this reason, Feng Menglong's "unconventional" behavior attracted much criticism, especially after the publication of Guazhi'er and Yezi Xin Doupu caused such a stir in society, described as "frivolous young people listened eagerly, leading to some losing their homes and wealth. Their fathers and brothers then attacked them in unison, and the matter could not be resolved." (Niu Xiu: Xiong Xiangmin Gongji, Heroic Deeds). Regarding this, we must analyze it dialectically. Some unscrupulous and despicable people, who were already harboring ambitions, used these voices of enlightenment as a tool to trample on human nature and harm society. But more young men and women dimly realized that love truly existed between the sexes, something that had been ignored or even ashamed of as impure behavior in the past. Now, they were devoted to it, and they were amazed to find that this sky was so beautiful, free, happy, and yearning. As a result, some ran away, some had affairs, and free love became a fashion. What was once at least outwardly proper and dignified was replaced by the disruption of family order and the estrangement of marital relationships. In the eyes of the urbanites, this was already the extreme of moral decline and family disgrace. So severe was the situation that Feng Menglong was inevitably attacked by the masses.
In the end, Feng Menglong had to turn to Xiong Tingbi for help to resolve this turmoil (see relevant content in later chapters).