Chinese Tourism Culture

Author: Wang Mingxuan
Publisher:
Publish Date: 1998-07-01
Features: Chapter 4, the unity of subject and object in ancient Chinese natural aesthetics, is similar to many other categories of Chinese culture. Ancient Chinese aesthetics has achieved remarkable accomplishments, renowned for its distinctive national characteristics and creative spirit. In classical aesthetics, a significant portion is dedicated to discussing the beauty of natural landscapes, which we can call ancient Chinese natural aesthetics or ancient Chinese natural aesthetic consciousness. It is characterized by clear inheritance and compatibility, not only becoming the common national aesthetic psychology of ancient Chinese people but also profoundly influencing modern Chinese people's natural aesthetic concepts and the development and construction of landscape tourism resources. Therefore, understanding the thoughts of ancient Chinese natural aesthetics is highly meaningful for enhancing our cultural literacy in tourism and deepening our appreciation of the aesthetic features of China's natural tourism resources.
Introduction to Ancient Chinese Natural Aesthetic Consciousness
The Chinese nation has a long tradition of appreciating landscapes and mountains. Throughout history, countless sages and philosophers have, after immersing themselves in the beauty of the motherland's natural wonders, recorded their thoughts and feelings in literature, poetry, or even paintings. These experiences were elevated to theory, offering profound elaborations on natural beauty and its essence, as well as the relationship between humans and nature. Thus, although ancient China lacked specialized works on natural aesthetics, it left behind a wealth of natural aesthetic ideas in vast philosophical, literary, artistic, and geographical texts, forming a complete system. Below, we introduce some significant and far-reaching theories.
### 1. Confucianism's "Comparison with Virtue" Theory
The "Comparison with Virtue" theory refers to the practice of using landscapes and mountains to symbolize moral and ethical qualities. This is a traditional natural aesthetic concept in ancient China. It holds that the character of nature is the source of all noble virtues. Appreciating natural landscapes should not merely focus on their external appearance but rather uncover the inner spiritual qualities within their demeanor, providing inspiration and moral cultivation, thereby elevating the observer to a higher spiritual realm. This concept originates from the ancient idea of "unity between heaven and humanity." During the Yin and Zhou dynasties, people believed that heaven and humanity were interconnected and consistent, and the laws of nature's movement and change were the same as those humans should follow in their activities.
The person who formally established this aesthetic concept was Confucius. His statements such as "The wise delight in water, the benevolent in mountains. The wise are active, the benevolent are still. The wise are joyful, the benevolent live long" (Analects, Chapter 2) and "Only after enduring the cold of winter do we know the resilience of pine and cypress" (Analects, Chapter 11) reveal his natural aesthetic views. Later Confucians explained that people love mountains and water because they possess virtuous qualities. Mountains are majestic and, revered by all, and they grow timber, store treasures, and nurture birds and animals. They nourish all things without tiring, resembling upright scholars and benevolent people, so the virtuous love mountains. Water silently irrigates the earth, follows the laws of flowing from high to low, and bravely traverses treacherous gorges without fear. Therefore, it embodies virtues such as morality, righteousness, principle, courage, fairness, and keen insight, so the wise love water.
Clearly, Confucius's natural aesthetic perspective emphasizes mutual resonance and exchange between humans and nature, values the unity of beauty and goodness, and focuses on interpreting natural phenomena from the perspective of human ethics and morality, viewing them as manifestations and symbols of certain spiritual qualities. This idea was later expanded by Confucian scholars throughout the generations, becoming the rich "Comparison with Virtue" theory. It has had a profound influence on the natural aesthetic psychology of the Chinese nation. Li Bai understood the value of "never bowing his head to serve the powerful" from the spiritual essence of famous mountains and rivers; Zhou Dunyi highly praised the lotus "which emerges from muddy waters without being stained"; Lu You perceived the noble virtue of "frigid plum blossoms outside the post station" from their integrity—all of these are vivid reflections of this national natural aesthetic psychology.
From a modern perspective, the "Comparison with Virtue" theory undoubtedly has flaws, as it is sometimes forced and overlooks the aesthetic value of the external forms and beauty of natural landscapes. However, this does not diminish its aesthetic significance:
First, the "Comparison with Virtue" theory emphasizes mutual communication between humans and nature, linking natural beauty with human moral integrity. This elevates the appreciation of natural beauty beyond mere sensory pleasure, allowing observers to gain insights, inspiration, and lessons from nature during their journeys, thereby cultivating their character and purifying their spirit. This is the essence of "education through travel." This historical tradition undoubtedly has a positive impact on enhancing the cultural literacy and moral standards of the nation.
Second, the "Comparison with Virtue" theory's exploration and admiration of the spiritual significance of nature encourage people to look beyond surface appearances to seek deeper meanings when appreciating landscapes and mountains. It also opens the way for later aestheticians and artists to explore the beauty of nature from higher and deeper levels. The Chinese nation pays attention not only to the color, lines, and shapes of landscapes but also values their inner temperament, artistic conception, and subtlety. A good landscape must possess poetic and artistic charm. This artistic perspective is closely linked to the "Comparison with Virtue" theory.
Finally, the "Comparison with Virtue" theory has had a profound impact on the natural aesthetic psychology of the Chinese nation and has "humanized" China's natural landscapes. Over the centuries, as people continuously observed and appreciated certain natural landscapes through the lens of comparison, these landscapes gradually bore the imprint of human spiritual and moral qualities, becoming symbols of such virtues. The beauty of nature and the beauty of spirit merged, giving them a higher value than ordinary natural objects. For example, in the hearts of Chinese people, Mount Tai is not just a mountain but a sacred symbol of the unity and prosperity of feudal China. The Yellow River is not just a river but the mother river, the cradle of Chinese culture and the embodiment of the Chinese nation's indomitable and hardworking spirit. Pine, bamboo, plum, and orchid are not ordinary plants but reflections of the Chinese nation's admiration for virtues such as steadfastness, integrity, and independence. Without understanding the cultural connotations embedded in these natural landscapes, we cannot truly appreciate their value.
Of course, the process of "humanizing" China's natural landscapes involves many factors, but the "Comparison with Virtue" theory is one of the primary reasons.
### 2. Laozi and Zhuangzi's "Natural" Theory
Laozi and Zhuangzi refer to the representative figures of ancient Chinese Taoism. Like Confucianism, Taoist natural aesthetic thought has profoundly influenced the Chinese nation's natural aesthetic psychology, particularly the "Natural" theory of Laozi and Zhuangzi. The core of this theory lies in the admiration for natural beauty and the beauty of unadorned, unrefined simplicity.
Laozi, Zhuangzi, and others attributed the intense social conflicts and moral decline of the slave society to the later sages who propagated benevolence, righteousness, and material abundance, which lured people and caused them to lose their pure, natural nature. Therefore, they opposed all artificial additions imposed on people, especially the ritual norms advocated by Confucianism, and advocated returning to simplicity and reverting to the ancient social state.
Regarding natural beauty, they believed that the beauty of heaven and earth is objective and exists independently. They express themselves according to their natural essence, and people should follow them without forcibly intervening or altering them. In the Zhuangzi, Zhi Bei You, it is said, "Heaven and earth possess great beauty without speaking; the four seasons follow clear laws without debate; all things follow their own principles without explanation. The sage seeks the beauty of heaven and earth and understands the principles of all things. Therefore, the supreme person acts without effort, the great sage does nothing, and observing the laws of heaven and earth is called wisdom."
Zhuangzi's meaning is that nature has its own operating principles. Heaven, earth, the four seasons, and all things follow their own laws to create the harmony and continuity of nature. They are not intentionally striving for harmony, but objectively, they are all great beauty. True beauty lies in its naturalness. Zhuangzi further illustrates the value of natural beauty with the fable of Dong Shi imitating Xi Shi. Xi Shi frowned because of heartache, but the people found it beautiful. A neighboring ugly woman imitated her, also frowning with her hands on her chest, but the neighbors fled in disgust. Zhuangzi explained that Xi Shi frowned only because of heartache, not to look beautiful, so the neighbors found it attractive. Things that naturally express themselves contain beauty, and it is true beauty, while Dong Shi's imitation was consciously pursuing beauty, which became ugly.
Zhuangzi repeatedly praises the natural, unadorned beauty of life in his writings and opposes any actions that natural beauty. He says, "Birds should be allowed to perch in deep forests, roam on terraces and plains, and swim in rivers and lakes," soaring freely in the heavens, which is very beautiful. However, Lu Hou's way of raising birds was to "ride them in temples, play the nine rhythms as music, and prepare the grand sacrifice as food," keeping them in cages. Despite the luxurious treatment, the birds were terrified and anxious, refusing to eat or drink, and died within three days. Regarding art, Zhuangzi advocated "following the laws of heaven and cherishing the true," "great skill resembling clumsiness," and "great simplicity without carving," meaning to follow the natural laws of the universe without leaving traces of artificial craftsmanship.
Due to Zhuangzi's extreme hatred for the corruption of social reality and his fierce criticism of secular benevolence, righteousness, ritual, and wisdom, while praising the natural beauty of nature, he also promoted the idea of humans returning to nature, associating with mountains and forests, and enjoying the company of birds and animals to achieve absolute freedom, believing that only then would a "supreme virtue era" emerge—a beautiful society.