On the Equilibrium of Compendia. Issue 2

Author: Ren Jiandao
Publisher:
Publish Date: 2002-08-01
Features: [Content Summary] This article is specifically dedicated to interpreting the Guodian Chu Bamboo Slips "Wuxing." On one hand, based on the content and original chapter headings, "Wuxing" is divided into six chapters totaling thirty-one sections. On the other hand, it points out that the book is profound in thought, rigorous in logic, and cohesive, making it an important work by Zisi. [Keywords] Wuxing, upper and lower, inner and outer, Si-Meng school, Si-Meng Wuxing theory, lost for over two thousand years, so after the "Wuxing" chapter was unearthed from the Mawangdui Han Tomb in 1973, it attracted great attention from academia. Twenty years later, its reappearance in the Guodian Chu Tomb amazed scholars even more. How is the textual structure of this lost text? The chapter headings in the silk manuscript and the "Shuo" section's errors in dividing the canonical text indicate that the Han people no longer understood the textual structure of "Wuxing." In contrast, the chapter headings in the bamboo slips are quite reasonable, though some are missing. This interpretation divides "Wuxing" into six chapters totaling thirty-one sections based on content and original chapter headings. It argues that the book is profound in thought, rigorous in logic, and cohesive, making it an important work by Zisi. The thought of the Si-Meng school has two main threads: one is upper and lower, and the other is inner and outer. Expressed in the three sentences of "Tianming," "Tianming zhi wei xing" (Heaven's mandate is called nature) is from above to below; "Shuli xing zhi wei dao" (Following nature is called the Way) is from within to without; "Xi daoshi zhi wei jiao" (Cultivating the Way is called teaching) is from without to within. In terms of Mengzi, "Jinxin, zhixing, zhitian" (Extending the heart-mind, knowing nature, knowing Heaven) is from below to above; "Ren nei Yi wai" (Ren is inner, Yi is outer) distinguishes inner and outer. Now, observing "Wuxing," it primarily discusses inner and outer issues. The first chapter is the outline of the entire book. This style is consistent with other classics unearthed at the same time, such as the "Laozi," "Dachang," and the transmitted "Tianming" and "Daxue," reflecting writing habits of the pre-Qin period. The entire chapter contains two sections. The first section discusses what the five constants are; the second section discusses the differences between the five constants and the four constants, virtue and goodness, Heaven's Way and human way, to highlight the special status of the sage. The first section [Original text] Wuxing: Ren, formed internally is called virtue; not formed internally is called action; Yi, formed internally is called virtue; not formed internally is called form; Li, formed internally is called virtue; not formed internally is called [action]; Zhi, formed internally is called virtue; not formed internally is called action; Sheng, formed internally is called virtue; not formed internally is called virtue. [Silk manuscript] Ren, formed [internally] is called virtue; not formed internally is called action; Zhi, formed internally is called virtue; wood formed internally is called [action]; Yi, formed [internally] is called virtue; [not formed internally is] called action; Li, formed internally is called virtue; not formed internally is called action; Sheng, formed internally [is called virtue]; [not formed internally is] called action. (The second section) [Examination] What is "formed internally," and what is "not formed internally"? This is the key issue in correctly understanding "Wuxing." I believe that "formed internally" refers to the naturally formed moral qualities within the inner heart-mind. The process of "formed internally" is also the process described in the "Zhongyong" as "Shuli xing zhi wei dao" (Following nature is called the Way) and "Zi Cheng Ming" (Extending sincerity naturally). "Not formed internally" refers to moral qualities formed through learning external moral norms. This process is also described in the "Zhongyong" as "Xidao zhi wei jiao" (Cultivating the Way is called teaching) and "Zi Ming Cheng" (Extending sincerity naturally). Regarding the four constants of benevolence, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom, why is "formed internally called virtue, not formed internally called action"? "Virtue" means to obtain, and what is obtained from Heaven is also nature. Since "formed internally" refers to the naturally formed moral qualities within the inner heart-mind, it is called "virtue." While "not formed internally" refers to moral qualities formed through learning external moral norms, it can only be called "action." Zheng Xuan's "Zhouli · Dizhuan · Shixi" says: "Virtue and action are the inner and outer aspects. What is in the heart is virtue, and what is implemented is action." In other words, "virtue" and "action" are just different aspects or stages of the same thing. It seems that this interpretation does not fit "Wuxing." Scholars use it to interpret "Wuxing," but it is not appropriate. [Content Summary] This article combines the two chapters "Liude" and "Wuxing" from the Guodian Bamboo Slips to answer the question of what constitutes the way of the gentleman from three levels: "The Three Connections of the Gentleman," "The Five Constants of the Gentleman," and "The Gentleman's Prudence in Solitude." The way of the gentleman begins with "The Three Connections" (distinction between men and women, father and son, ruler and subject), extends to "The Five Constants" (benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and sagehood), and ultimately concludes with "Prudence in Solitude" (unifying the five constants in the heart). From "The Three Connections," "The Five Constants," to "Prudence in Solitude," the three stages progress sequentially, not only being an indispensable part of the way of the gentleman but also the necessary path to achieving the gentleman's character. [Keywords] Guodian Bamboo Slips, gentleman, six virtues, five constants, prudence in solitude The Guodian Bamboo Slips "Liude" and "Wuxing" both discuss the basic virtues of Confucian ethics: the former discusses "the six virtues" (sagehood, wisdom, benevolence, righteousness, loyalty, and trustworthiness), while the latter discusses "the five constants" (sagehood, wisdom, benevolence, propriety, and sagehood). Although the two chapters have different perspectives and reasoning paths, there is one thing in common: they both emphasize the relationship between the gentleman and virtue, and they both emphasize the way of the gentleman or "the gentleman's great method of establishing oneself." This raises the question: what is the way of the gentleman? What is the specific content of the way of the gentleman? This article combines "Liude" and "Wuxing" to discuss this question from three levels: "The Three Connections of the Gentleman," "The Five Constants of the Gentleman," and "Prudence in Solitude."
One, the "Three Connections" of the gentleman "The Three Connections" is a proposition raised in "Liude." To accurately understand this proposition, it is necessary to start from the division of "six positions," "six occupations," and "six virtues" in "Liude." "Liude" divides the roles of people in social life into "six positions" (meeting, wife, father, son, ruler, and subject) and "six occupations" (leaders, followers, rulers, served, teachers, and learners), and assigns corresponding ethical norms to them, called "six virtues" (sagehood, wisdom, benevolence, righteousness, loyalty, and trustworthiness): "Among the people, there must be husband, wife, father, son, ruler, and subject—this is the six positions. There are leaders, followers; rulers, served; teachers, and learners—this is the six occupations. Since there are the six positions, they are assigned to these [six occupations]. The six occupations are divided, and the six virtues are completed." "What are the six virtues? Sagehood, wisdom; benevolence, righteousness; loyalty, trustworthiness." The "six positions," "six occupations," and "six virtues" have a corresponding relationship. "Liude" specifies this correspondence: Husband, "to lead people with wisdom." Wisdom is the virtue of the husband." Wife, "to follow people with trustworthiness." Trustworthiness is the virtue of the wife." Those who raise and educate are called sagehood. Sagehood is the virtue of the father. Son, "to gather talents and serve the superior with benevolence." The virtue of the son is benevolence." Ruler, "to lead people with righteousness." Righteousness is the virtue of the ruler." Subject, "to serve people with loyalty." Loyalty is the virtue of the subject." This correspondence aims to ensure that husband, wife, father, son, ruler, and subject each stay in their positions, perform their duties, and follow their virtues. The combination of "six positions," "six occupations," and "six virtues" actually involves two major areas of ancient social life—family and state, known as "governance within the door" and "governance outside the door": "Benevolence is inner. Righteousness is outer. Ritual and music are shared. Establishing father, son, and husband within the door; establishing ruler, subject, and wife outside the door." The "six virtues" target both the inner and the outer, their function being to achieve shared governance within and outside the door. However, for each individual, the roles within and outside the door may overlap, for example, being both a son and a father, both a son and a subject. If an individual faces conflicting roles, how can they choose among the six virtues as ethical norms? "Liude" provides two principles: First, inner and outer are different, that is, "governance within the door" and "governance outside the door" are different: "Within the door, governance is based on benevolence, concealing righteousness. Outside the door, governance is based on righteousness, severing benevolence." Second, the inner comes before the outer, that is, choices are made based on the closeness of kinship: "For father, give up the ruler; do not give up the father for the ruler. For elder brothers and younger brothers, give up the wife; do not give up the elder brothers and younger brothers for the wife. For clansmen, be hostile to friends; do not be hostile to clansmen for friends." However, the gentleman is different from ordinary people: the gentleman can balance the conflicts between roles within and outside the door, thus achieving both inner and outer success: "The gentleman speaks of trustworthiness and speaks of it. The gentleman speaks of righteousness and speaks of it. Setting both inner and outer as successful." Therefore, the gentleman is the unity of "governance within the door" and "governance outside the door," the embodiment of sagehood, wisdom, benevolence, righteousness, loyalty, and trustworthiness, and the model of "the six virtues." However, how can one become a gentleman? Or where does the way of the gentleman begin? The way of the gentleman begins with "The Three Connections": "The gentleman's great method of establishing oneself has three, its extension is six, and its derivation is twelve. The three are connected, and speech and action are connected. The three are not connected, and speech and action are not. The three are all connected, then it is so. The three are what the gentleman is born with and what he establishes, and what he dies with and what he leaves behind." The "three connections" specifically refer to: "Men and women are distinct in speech, father and son are close in speech, ruler and subject are righteous in speech." This is the "great method of establishing oneself" for the gentleman: On one hand, "The Three Connections" are the starting point for the gentleman's actions and words, determining whether the gentleman's character can be established. Because from "The Three Connections," one can extend to "the six virtues" (sagehood, wisdom, benevolence, righteousness, loyalty, and trustworthiness), and further expand to "the ten righteousness" (father's kindness, son's and elder brother's goodness, younger brother's kindness, husband's righteousness, wife's obedience, elder's kindness, younger's obedience, ruler's benevolence, and subject's loyalty). If not, "Husband acts like a husband, wife acts like a wife, father acts like a father, son acts like a son, ruler acts like a ruler, and subject acts like a subject"—these six will each act according to their roles without any deceit or slander." On the other hand, if the three are not connected, it means "the six are without foundation: Men and women are not distinct, father and son are not close. Father and son are not close, ruler and subject are not righteous." The result is, "Husband does not act like a husband, wife does not act like a wife, father does not act like a father, son does not act like a son, ruler does not act like a ruler, and subject does not act like a subject"—this is what is done without foundation. Therefore, "The Three Connections of the Gentleman" are both the starting point and the foundation of the way of the gentleman. [Content Summary] This article is a chapter from the author's study of the interpretation history of the "Zhuangzi · Qiwuli." It does not merely narrate Guo Xiang's interpretation of the "Zhuangzi" thought but explores his understanding of "Qiwuli" and its relationship to the entire commentary on the "Zhuangzi." Analysis shows that the two important categories reflecting Guo Xiang's naturalistic tendency—creation without a master and natural sufficiency—stem from his elaboration on the ideas of listening to the celestial melody and the equality of all things in "Qiwuli." At the same time, these views were applied by him to the annotations of other chapters of the "Zhuangzi," such as "Xiaoyao You," "Dazhushi," and "Qishui," thus forming his unique metaphysical system. Guo Xiang's special understanding of "Qiwuli" also lies in his use of the dualistic approach of "both non-right and non-wrong" to handle Zhuangzi's paradox of the equality of right and wrong, and thereby leading to a political stance consistent with the secular power order. [Keywords] Qiwuli, naturalism, creation without a master, natural sufficiency, paradox Compared to Ruan Ji and Ji Kang, Guo Xiang clearly had a closer relationship with the "Zhuangzi." He was not just a fan or a deducer of Zhuangzi's thought but made significant philosophical impact through his annotations on the "Zhuangzi." The success of Guo Xiang's annotations on the "Zhuangzi" is reflected in several aspects: First, he pushed the influence of the "Zhuangzi" on Wei-Jin metaphysics to its peak. After Guo Xiang elaborated on Xiang Xiu's "extending and broadening," "the traces of Confucianism and Mohism were despised, and the words of Taoism flourished" ("Jin Shi · Xiang Xiu Zhuan"). Second, Guo Xiang developed a philosophical system with his own insights through annotating the "Zhuangzi." His annotations on the "Zhuangzi" are not only a way to understand the "Zhuangzi" but also an important achievement of metaphysics itself. Third, his understanding of the "Zhuangzi" became an influential interpretation for later generations. Not only those who appreciated the "Zhuangzi" accepted Guo's interpretation, but even those who criticized the "Zhuangzi" may have formed their attitudes through reading Guo's annotations. Since Guo Xiang directly annotated the "Zhuangzi" and also made his own innovations, the angle of this article focuses not on the similarities between Guo Xiang and the "Zhuangzi" but on their differences. Only through differences can the creativity of this interpretation be seen. In the preface to the "Zhuangzi," Guo Xiang praises Zhuangzi's words as "connecting the unity of Heaven and Earth, ordering the nature of all things, reaching the changes of life and death, and clarifying the way of the inner sage and the outer king. Above, knowing that creation has no master; below, knowing that things create themselves." Although Guo Xiang annotated the "Zhuangzi" by treating the entire book as a complete system, the above summary, except for "clarifying the way of the inner sage and the outer king" which comes from "Tianxia," is all related to "Qiwuli." The depth and richness of the thought of "Qiwuli" naturally made it a key target for Guo Xiang when interpreting the "Zhuangzi." The following attempt is to start from the significance of "Qiwuli" to Guo Xiang's thought creation, study the relationship between his annotations on "Qiwuli" and the entire annotations on the "Zhuangzi," and thereby his attitude behind the social thought stance in annotating the "Zhuangzi."