Huxiang Cultural Spirit and Twentieth-Century Hunan Literature

Author: Tanaka Yoh
Publisher:
Publishing Date: 2000-09-01
Features: During the Qin and Han dynasties, the Central Plains region was a hub of cultural influence, with flourishing agriculture and a thriving population. In contrast, the Wu and Chu regions, which had recently shed their barbaric labels, were more rustic and primitive, making it difficult for Jinling to compete. Today, the Central Plains region no longer matches the prominence of Wu and Chu. Against the backdrop of China's political, economic, and cultural shift southward, Hunan began to emerge in Chinese history. Zhou Dunyi of the Northern Song Dynasty, following Qu Yuan, became a brilliant star of thought native to Hunan, establishing the foundation of Neo-Confucianism in the Song and Ming dynasties. During the Southern Song Dynasty, the Hunan-Xiang School emerged, with Hu Hong and Zhang Shi regarded as master figures in Chinese intellectual and cultural history. Zhang Shi's Yuelu Academy, where he taught, became the "orthodox lineage of the Way." By the Ming-Qing transition, the great thinker Wang Fuzhi synthesized these ideas. In the aftermath of the Opium War, Tao Shu and Wei Yuan further developed Wang Fuzhi's teachings, solidifying Hunan culture as a dominant intellectual and cultural stream that shaped Hunan and China for over a century. However, in contemporary times, especially since the reform era, as China becomes increasingly open and globalized, Hunan, located in the central heartland, has gradually lost its geographical advantages, while coastal and border provinces have grown stronger. Transportation constraints have hindered economic development, leaving a relatively weak industrial and commercial foundation and more conservative societal attitudes. Particularly sandwiched between the economically advanced Guangdong and Hubei provinces, Hunan, as an agricultural powerhouse, finds itself in a vulnerable and awkward position. As a result, the historical limitations of Hunan culture have become increasingly evident. The formation of modern Hunan culture is inseparable from the nurturing of its geographical mother, while its creative transformation relies on transcending geographical constraints. While regional culture is inevitably influenced and constrained by geographical conditions, the impact of the human environment is undoubtedly more decisive. In the "Race" chapter of his Philosophy of Art, Dagon meticulously analyzes the influence of Greece's natural environment and climate on its art, revealing "the imprint of nature's structure on the national spirit." Yet he emphasizes more the role of the "spiritual" environment and climate. He states: "Indeed, there is a 'spiritual' climate, that is, customs and the spirit of the age, which acts just as the natural climate does." The "spiritual" environment and climate he refers to include not only the spirit of the age and customs but also the social aesthetic psychology, ideological forms, and artistic style tendencies of the time—spiritual cultural factors. When analyzing the origins of modern Hunan culture, Dagon's research offers valuable insights, urging us to focus on the role of the region's "spiritual" environment and climate. First, the "Qu Jia complex" becomes a resilient cultural psychological focal point for modern Hunan scholars. Qu Yuan and Jia Yi are models of loyalty, patriotism, and concern for the nation. Their unique personalities and attitudes align closely with the cultural traits of Confucianism, making them ideals for millennia of Confucian scholars to emulate. The "Qu Jia complex" is a cultural knot for intellectuals who engage with the world in Chinese history, its influence remaining undiminished to this day. Lu Xun's modern spirit can be seen as a continuation and refinement of Qu Yuan's spirit in a new historical context. In Li Sao, Qu Yuan's line, "The road is long, and the journey ahead is distant; I will seek above and below," was chosen by Lu Xun as the preface to his collection Panghuang, reflecting his purification of Qu Yuan's spirit and his own. Yet Qu and Jia were fundamentally from Hunan; their most significant moments and their profoundest impact on Chinese cultural and literary history were spent on Hunan's soil. Hunan scholars hold them dear, a natural affection. Nostalgia is one of the most primal and fundamental emotions, especially in a Chinese society rooted in agrarian natural economy and bound by patriarchal kinship ties. It is particularly fervent and significant in a person's life, even becoming their "spiritual homeland." The saying, "Familiarity breeds contempt," and "Home is where the heart is," deeply express this sentiment. Thus, Chinese people place great importance on the relationships of "fellow natives" and "same-region compatriots." The very term "Hunan Army" embodies this cultural sentiment. Against this backdrop, Hunan scholars' special reverence and celebration of Qu and Jia are only natural. Some researchers argue that Qu Yuan's homeland was the Yuanxiang region where he was exiled, and that his birthplace was Han Shou in Hunan. Qu Yuan's decades-long exile in the Yuanxiang region, his most brilliant works composed there, and his ultimate sacrifice in the region all prove that his exile was, in fact, a dismissal from court and a forced return to his Yuanxiang homeland. If this claim is insufficient evidence, then the fact that Qu Yuan spent his later years in Yuanxiang, composed most of his works there, and created his masterpiece Li Sao in the soil of southern Chu's shamanistic culture is undeniable. Li Sao is a political lyrical poem that will endure for millennia, its soul embodying the spirit of governing and benefiting the state. It is also a hymn to lofty character and an immortal soul, serving as a mirror suspended at the source of history, reflecting and inspiring generations of upright and capable scholars. It purifies the vices in the souls of past scholars and refines their character and integrity. Especially poignant is Qu Yuan's suicide in the Miluo River, which binds this great figure more closely to the lives of Hunan scholars. Jia Yi, a distinguished political figure and litterateur of the Western Han Dynasty, arrived in Hunan about a century after Qu Yuan's drowning, having been exiled from the distant Chang'an. His life was brief—he lived only 32 years. At the age of 18, he was already renowned for his poetic and literary skills. In his 20s, he became a scholar-official, proposing numerous reforms that demonstrated his profound historical insight and exceptional political acumen, earning the favor of Emperor Wen of Han. However, this also drew the resentment and jealousy of court officials, who slandered him: "The young man from Luoyang, newly educated, seeks to seize power and create chaos." Due to this slander, the emperor gradually distanced himself, disregarding his advice and appointing him as the tutor of the Prince of Changsha. In Eulogy to Qu Yuan, written during his exile to Changsha via the Xiang River, Jia Yi expressed his own frustrations through the eulogy of Qu Yuan, mourning the departed while actually lamenting his own fate. He fiercely criticized the dark politics of Qu Yuan's era—"where phoenixes hide and vultures soar, where slanderers thrive and the virtuous are dragged down, where integrity is inverted." He lamented: "These narrow streams cannot contain fish of great size; the mighty sharks of the river shall be prey to ants." In the previous section, we explored the impact of Hunan culture on the life value orientations and behavioral tendencies of 20th-century Hunan writers. This section focuses on textual analysis. The regulation of Hunan culture on the creative psychological patterns of 20th-century Hunan writers is most vividly reflected in the texts, which serve as screens for history, culture, and life, and as reservoirs of the writers' wisdom, character, and cultural spirit. The influence of Hunan culture on 20th-century Hunan literary texts is profound and multidimensional. Choosing an appropriate angle to grasp the overall picture is a challenging task. After careful consideration, I propose to approach this through aesthetic and narrative perspectives, offering an interpretation of 20th-century Hunan literary texts. The aesthetic perspective is a fundamental stance toward life as an art, shaped by the creator's political inclinations, cultural psychology, philosophical and aesthetic concepts. It fundamentally regulates the treatment of themes, characters, and artistic expression in the text. The aesthetic perspective determines the artistic structure. The narrative perspective is a central concept in modern narratology, considered a purely formal concept. However, modern narratology emphasizes its decisive role in fiction writing, as it defines the relationship between the narrator and the story being told. Thus, the handling of the narrative perspective is a critical issue in the art of fiction. Seeking diverse perspectives has become one of the artistic pursuits of modern fiction. Regardless of whether the narrator is the author or another character, this perspective is determined by the author, and thus the author's creative psychological patterns inevitably play a significant role in selecting the narrative perspective. As fate would have it, 20th-century Hunan literature began with the lament and call to action in Meng Hu Tou: "I have shed a few tears of the nation, endured days of civilization, and operated a killing machine for my compatriots. I have wandered and cried across the world, seeking a voice in unity. With clappers and zithers, I will sing a few plays of civilization on the cool mountains of Asia. I will sit on the long street, raise my voice, and call upon my compatriots to listen closely." The opening of Meng Hu Tou reflects political sentiments, revolutionary spirit, a sense of crisis, and the principle of governing the state, as well as a comprehensive narrative viewpoint, style, and tone that span the entire 20th-century Hunan literary history, forming a dominant aesthetic form. This opening is the beginning of a century of literature, the shaping and defining of a century of literary expression. I often experience a hallucination: the narrator at the turn of the century, standing tall and filled with anxiety, is addressing a century of narration. He is not merely "sitting on the long street, shouting loudly"; he is singing heroically on the relay station of a century of history. Whether I am clear-headed or muddled, looking to the future or reflecting on the past, I often hear the echoing cry and voice of "Take up clappers, sit on the long street, shout loudly, and call upon my compatriots to listen closely," a call that resonates through the century, especially in its final year. When reviewing the texts of 20th-century Hunan literature, I find that my sense—or perhaps a spiritual resonance—is correct. Before analyzing specific texts, we first examine the literary and aesthetic concepts of Hunan writers, providing a rational basis for understanding. To enhance clarity, I focus on the concepts these writers held at the beginning of their literary careers, deliberately excluding expressions of literary and aesthetic concepts from 1942 to 1976, a period of pervasive literary politicization and ideologicalization. This allows us to understand these concepts as expressions of their own will, thoughts expressed in relatively free circumstances, and manifestations of creative psychological patterns shaped by cultural accumulation. Chen Tianhua harbored the ideal of "using the pen as a sword"; Ning Diaoquan cried out, "Let the poetic arena begin today, and raise the banner of the revolutionary army"; Ouyang Yuqian, praised by Shen Congwen as "a figure essential to the history of modern Chinese drama," was passionate about revolutionary discussions in his youth. He stated, "Tang Sidong and Tang Caichang were disciples of my grandfather and deeply connected to my family. Tang Caichang was also my mentor in early education. From a young age, I was familiar with books like Iron Box History, Waiting for the Visit of the Mysterious, and Revealing the Great. The successive executions of Tang and Tang deeply affected me, even as a child." Thus, upon entering the world of drama, he performed The Black Slave Cries to Heaven, and his 1913 play Original Power exposed the corrupt politics of the time. Ding Ling, in her 1932 essay Specific Opinions on Creation, proposed, "Do not alienate yourself from the masses; do not consider yourself merely a writer. Remember that you are part of the masses, speaking for them and for yourself." Zhou Yang, in his 1933 essay The Authenticity of Literature, stated, "Only by standing on the side of the revolutionary class, grasping the method of materialist dialectics, and finding the inevitable and essential elements in the chaos of phenomena—the fundamental laws of movement—can one reach the correct path to understanding reality and the peak of literary authenticity." Zhou Libo, in his 1935 essay The Nature of Literature, argued, "All literature is imbued with political views and philosophical thought," and "All famous works in literary history, whether romantic or realistic, even 'classicalist,' are infused with political and ideological traits." Tian Han, in the early 1920s, wrote an announcement for the Southern Film and Drama Society, declaring, "With a sincere attitude, we use Film (film) to express the deep grievances of our people, working tirelessly toward success, and briefly state our aspirations to attract fellow travelers." Ye Zi, in his preface, said his works were "filled with fiery passion and the accumulation of reality's pain and tears," and in How I Became Connected with Literature, he added, "I simply want to honestly depict the suffering of my body and the injustice of humanity, venting all the frustrations in my heart." Xiao San, known as a "political poet," repeatedly expressed his literary views in poems like Hope, Poets, Arise! and My Declaration, stating, "Poets and poetry are like bullets and bayonets." In the 1980s, Hunan writers' literary concepts remained consistent with their predecessors. Gu Hua said his Furong Town was "imbued with political storms in the picture of folk customs and local life, depicting the changes in town life through the fate of its characters." Han Shao Gong stated, "The author must pay great attention to political utility—this was once the purpose of revolutionary literature. Literature cannot be separated from politics; the connection between contemporary politics and people's lives is becoming increasingly close. To think of completely detaching from politics is to speak in madness. I wrote Westward Gazing at the Mao Grassland and Echoes with clear motivations: to support political reforms, praise truth, criticize current flaws, and focus tightly on politics. The choice of form was also largely based on considerations of political propaganda. I believe this is entirely necessary, and I am delighted to have been able to contribute even a small part." Wang Yuewen said his works were "providing test sheets and perspective slides for the people and history." Chapter 1: Exploring the Spirit of Hunan Culture
1. The Basic Traits of Hunan Culture
2. The Historical Background of Hunan Culture's Formation
3. Regional Factors in Hunan Culture's Formation
4. The Historical Limitations of Hunan Culture
Chapter 2: "Politics—Literature": One Aspect of Creative Psychological Patterns
1. "Psychological Inheritance" of Hunan Culture and the Creative Psychological Patterns of 20th-Century Hunan Writers
2. Life Journey Amidst Political Turmoil
3. Textual Creation Facing Politics and Practical Governance
Chapter 3: "Literature—Politics": Another Aspect of Creative Psychological Patterns
1. An Unravelable Political Connection
2. "Gazing at the Distant Horizon of Life": Aesthetic Pursuits
Chapter 4: Mao Zedong: A Special Case for Study
1. Early Life Path
2. Literary Thought Focused on Practical Governance
3. Poetic Creation of "Two Combines"
Appendix: A Heavy "Romance"
Afterword