A Critical Biography of Feng Youlan's Academic Thought

Author: Song Zhiming
Publisher:
Publish Date: 1999-07-01
Features: Reviewing the development of Chinese academia in the 20th century, it can be said that: it was a productive century, an innovative century, and a glorious century. Over a hundred years, outstanding scholars emerged, stars shone brightly, achievements were abundant, and new ideas were constantly introduced. Traditional Chinese academia underwent transformation, with a large influx of Western academia. Through the exchange, collision, and integration of Chinese and Western academia, 20th-century Chinese academic culture was born and rapidly grew. Within a hundred years, each academic field made new breakthroughs and significant progress, establishing a complete system of modern Chinese academic culture. Reviewing and summarizing the academic development of the 20th century, distinguishing its right and wrong, gains and losses, is a meaningful endeavor, an essential step to advance 21st-century academia and further construct Chinese socialist academic culture.
Traditional Chinese academic culture has a long history, profound roots, and has achieved splendid results with substantial accumulation. It has long nurtured the Chinese people, shaping the character and spirit of the Chinese nation, and holds an important position in the history of world academic culture. However, since the mid-19th century, imperialist invasions brought Western academic culture to China. The spread of Western learning in China went through several stages: first, the dissemination of material civilization, then institutional and spiritual civilization, until Marxism entered China. Western academic culture is vast and far-reaching in influence. After entering China, it took root, blossomed, and bore fruit. It changed the direction and pace of development of Chinese academic thought and even the entire society, enabling China to transition from a traditional feudal society to a modern one. During this period, there were intense struggles and gradual integration between Chinese and Western studies, between old and new studies, and between traditional and modern academia. The 20th-century academic culture of China was born through this process of struggle and integration.
The beginnings of modern Chinese academic culture can be traced back to Yan Fu's translation of Western academic classics. In the late 19th century, he translated "Evolution and Ethics" by Thomas Huxley, introducing the theory of evolution to the Chinese people and bringing about a revolutionary change in academic thought. Later, he successively translated Adam Smith's "The Wealth of Nations," John Stuart Mill's "On Liberty," John Stuart Mill's "A System of Logic," Herbert Spencer's "Principles of Sociology," Montesquieu's "The Spirit of the Laws," John Stuart Mill's "A System of Logic," and George Johnstone Stoney's "Elements of Logic." These were fields rarely studied or written about in traditional Chinese academia, providing references for modern Chinese economics, political science, law, sociology, and logic, which thus began to flourish.
In 1901, Liang Qichao published "Preface to the History of China," explaining the difference between modern and traditional historiography: "As world academia advances, the role of modern historians differs from that of their predecessors. Earlier historians merely recorded facts, while modern historians must explore the relationships, causes, and consequences of those facts. Earlier historians confined themselves to the rise and fall of a few powerful individuals or families, though called history, it was merely a genealogy of a person or family. Modern historians must investigate the overall movement and progress of human society, the experiences of the entire nation, and their interrelationships." He passionately called for the revolution of historiography, believing it was a matter of national survival: "If the revolution in historiography does not occur, our country will be irredeemable. Among all things, this is the most important." At that time, Xia Zengyou wrote "New Middle School Chinese History Textbook," the first modern Chinese general history written in a chapter-based style. Other disciplines also entered the modern era at the beginning of the 20th century. In 1910, Shen Jiaben founded the Law Society and "Journal of the Law Society," marking the beginning of modern Chinese jurisprudence. Wang Guowei and Luo Zhenyu's study of oracle bones unearthed from the Yin Ruins can be considered the origin of modern archaeology. Zhang Taiyan's research on Indian philosophy and Wang Guowei's study of Schopenhauer pioneered the study of foreign philosophy by modern Chinese scholars. During the May Fourth Movement, Chen Duxiu and Hu Shi advocated literary revolution, giving birth to modern Chinese literature. Hu Shi wrote "Outlines of the History of Chinese Philosophy," the first analysis and study of ancient Chinese thought from a Western perspective. As for natural sciences, in the late 19th century, scholars like Li Shanlan, Xu Shu, and Hua Hongfang translated numerous works and laid extensive groundwork. In 1915, Chinese students studying in the United States founded the Chinese Scientific Society and launched "Science Magazine," marking the gradual development of modern Chinese natural science research.
The 20th-century Chinese academia was a product of advanced intellectuals seeking salvation for the nation by looking to the West for truth. Western theories and numerous works surged into China like a flood released from a dam. Chinese scholars, rooted in their own foundation, selected, differentiated, and absorbed, creating academic culture suited to their time. As Chinese scholars, born and raised in China, educated within its culture, were inevitably deeply influenced by traditional Chinese culture. The scholars of the 20th century, coming from the old era, were generally proficient in traditional Chinese culture. The fierce anti-traditionalists of the May Fourth Movement, such as Chen Duxiu, Li Dazhao, Lu Xun, Hu Shi, Qian Xuantong, and Wu Yu, strove to oppose and break away from old traditions to fulfill their historical mission of discarding the old and embracing the new. Yet, old traditions had alreadyed into their blood, making it impossible for them to completely sever ties with the past. As they themselves said, they had broken out of the old camp and turned against it. Even "wholly Westernized" advocates like Chen Xujing could not escape traditional influences. As long as one is Chinese and has been educated in Chinese culture, one cannot completely the influence of Chinese academic culture. "Today's me" cannot entirely oppose and discard "yesterday's me." Similarly, no 20th-century Chinese scholar, no matter how conservative or stubborn, could completely oppose Western academic culture. The superiority and advancement of Western academic culture became increasingly evident, and people could not help but accept it to some extent. There were no people who entirely opposed or discarded Western academic culture. Modern life in China was heavily influenced by the West—western suits, western-style meals, western-style houses, cars, and airplanes. Western civilization was everywhere, and whose life could escape these influences? Mao Dun depicted Wu Laoye in "The Midnight Sun" as stubborn and ignorant, yet upon arriving in Shanghai from the countryside, he recited the "Great Response to" but lived in a western-style house and had to travel by car. The-dressed, retro-advocate Su Hongming was, in fact, a university scholar with a comprehensive Western education.
A major characteristic of the 20th century was the transition from conflict to integration between Chinese and Western cultures. People grew up in a cultural atmosphere that was both Chinese and Western, neither purely Chinese nor purely Western, but a blend of both. The struggle and integration of these two heterogeneous cultures would not end in a short time. Historically, when Buddhist culture entered China, it took root over the Han, Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, Tang, and Song dynasties, with Confucianism and Buddhism engaging in fierce struggles and mutual rejection before gradually integrating. This gave rise to Confucianized Buddhism—Zen Buddhism—and Buddhistized Confucianism—Neo-Confucianism. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, Jesuit missionaries introduced Western culture to China. Despite support from figures like Xu Guangqi, Li Zhiyu, even the emperors Shunzhi and Kangxi, they faced strong resistance from Confucianism. Over a hundred years later, it faded away without taking root or bearing fruit. This shows that the integration of heterogeneous cultures, especially the birth of new academic culture from such integration, is a long, slow, and arduous process.
After the Opium War, the spread of Western culture in China marked the third time it entered the country in history, with greater momentum and far-reaching influence than the previous two. Due to the superiority of Western academic culture, traditional Chinese culture seemed inferior. By the end of the 20th century, in the clash between Chinese and Western studies, traditional Chinese studies had been disorganized and defeated. To rebuild Chinese academic culture, it was necessary to learn from Western strengths and create anew on the foundation of Chinese academic culture. Against this historical backdrop, through the unremitting efforts of Chinese scholars, 20th-century Chinese academia was nurtured, emerged, and displayed a fresh face and vigorous vitality.
Generally speaking, 20th-century Chinese academic culture had the following characteristics:
1. Guided by the theory of evolution and materialist history. Traditional Chinese academia praised the institutions and figures of ancient times, revered the sages and belittled later rulers, considering Yao, Shun, Yu, Tang, Wen, Wu, the Duke of Zhou, and Confucius as the bearers of the Way. Believing that the ancient Way had been lost, the later generations were filled with strife, and society progressively declined. In the late 19th century, Yan Fu translated "Evolution and Ethics," and the principles of social evolution swept the nation, completely changing outdated concepts. The Chinese people came to understand how to observe and study human society from an evolutionary perspective, arriving at conclusions entirely different from those of the ancients. Thus, 20th-century academic culture abandoned traditional notions and established modern new concepts. Around the May Fourth Movement, Marxism entered China, and advanced intellectuals grasped the scientific materialist history, further understanding productive forces and production relations, the economic base and superstructure, the objective laws and subjective initiative of social development, etc. Academic culture research was guided by materialist history and scientific methods. 20th-century Chinese academic culture made significant progress. All Chinese scholars of the 20th century believed in the theory of evolution. After 1949, materialist history under Marxism held the dominant position, nurturing and fostering a large number of scholars.
2. A new system of knowledge classification was formed. Traditional Chinese academia was divided into classics, history, philosophy, and belles-lettres, not strictly based on disciplinary classification. Among them, classical studies held the highest position and encompassed everything. The "Book of Changes" included mathematics, philosophy, and natural sciences; the "Book of Documents" included political science, history, and geography; the "Book of Songs" included literature, art, and natural sciences; the "Book of Rites" included political science, ethics, and pedagogy; the "Spring and Autumn Annals" included history and political science. Many disciplines were still in their infancy, yet to fully differentiate from the broad classical studies, with extremely blurred boundaries between disciplines. By the 20th century, Chinese academic culture had flourished and grown, forming a new system of knowledge classification. Natural sciences adopted the academic achievements accumulated over centuries in the West and became an independent major. Within it, disciplines branched out, establishing major fields such as mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, agriculture, engineering, and medicine. With numerous categories and rich content, it reached a high level and benefited national and economic well-being. In the humanities and social sciences, literature, history, and philosophy were separated, forming their own specialties. New disciplines such as economics, law, pedagogy, sociology, journalism, political science, and psychology emerged and became independent. Due to the rapid progress of human society in the 20th century, people's understanding of nature, society, and themselves deepened, with knowledge and information quantities growing immensely. Academic culture became increasingly rich in content and scope, completely breaking the old framework of classics, history, philosophy, and belles-lettres, forming a new system of modern social and natural sciences.
3. The application of rational methods. Traditional academic research methods were not precise enough, logic was not rigorous, and reasoning and judgment carried a certain subjective color. Academic pursuits involved intuitive insights, quiet contemplation, self-reflection, and self-cultivation. Certain non-rational methods, such as imaginative, intuitive, faith-based, speculative, and emotional approaches, could still form academic knowledge as long as they expressed the real or illusory state of the research object. For example, ancient theories like the "mythical seas and nine states" or the "theory of" (heaven-mankind interaction) or the "theory of " (clear mind and self-nature) were considered academic knowledge. In the 20th century, Chinese academia introduced Western research methods, emphasizing induction and deduction, valuing evidence ("without evidence, no belief" and "a single piece of evidence is not enough"), abandoning subjective biases, and adopting a calm, objective attitude to engage in precise and accurate cognitive activities of specific objects. In natural sciences, microscopes, telescopes, and other scientific instruments and experimental methods were used. In social sciences, research methods focused on investigation and collection of firsthand material. 20th-century academic culture pursued precise and specific understanding of the rich diversity of the real world, thereby recognizing its essence and laws. Modern academic culture valued rational spirit rather than intuition, faith, or authority.
4. The spirit of patriotism was. When China entered the 20th century, imperialist aggression became fiercer, and the oppression of feudal warlords and the Nationalist government became more brutal. Amid internal and external crises, the people lived in suffering. 20th-century Chinese scholars witnessed the fragmentation of the nation and the suffering of the people, filled with deep compassion and a sense of responsibility, calling for the salvation of the nation. They painstakingly explored and dedicated themselves to research in various academic fields, all for the purpose of saving the country. 20th-century Chinese academic culture was born and developed in the turbulent and difficult years. The common strong desire of scholars was to oppose imperialist aggression and feudal oppression, to make the country prosperous and the people happy. Those in natural sciences hoped for salvation through science; those in economics through industrial development; those in pedagogy through education; those in political science for national prosperity and stability; those in philosophy for reviving the national spirit; those in history for educating and mobilizing the people through historical experience; and those in literature for shaping the heroic images of the nation's unyielding heroes. 20th-century Chinese academic culture emerged alongside the nation's suffering, driving the nation forward, calling for national awakening, and inspiring the struggles of the masses. Therefore, patriotism permeated it, becoming its main spiritual support. 20th-century Chinese academic culture waved the banner of patriotism.