Biographical Review of Yan Fu's Academic Thought

Author: Ma Yong
Publisher:
Publishing Time: 2001-02-01
Features: Reviewing the development of Chinese academia in the 20th century, it can be said that it was a century of abundance, innovation, and brilliance. Over the hundred years, outstanding scholars emerged, stars shone brightly, achievements were abundant, and new ideas were constantly introduced. Traditional Chinese academia underwent transformation as a large amount of Western academia was introduced into China. Through the exchange, collision, and integration of Chinese and Western academia, 20th-century Chinese academic culture was born and rapidly flourished. Within a hundred years, each academic field made new breakthroughs and significant progress, establishing a complete system of modern Chinese academic culture. Reviewing and summarizing the academic development of the 20th century, distinguishing its right and wrong, gains and losses, is a highly meaningful endeavor, an essential step in advancing 21st-century academia and further constructing Chinese socialist academic culture. Traditional Chinese academic culture has a long history, profound roots, and has achieved splendid results and accumulated abundant knowledge. It has long nurtured the Chinese people and shaped the character and spirit of the Chinese nation, holding an important position in the history of world academic culture. However, since the mid-19th century, imperialist aggression against China also brought Western academic culture. The spread of Western learning to the East went through several stages, starting with the dissemination of material civilization, followed by institutional and spiritual civilization, until Marxism was introduced into China. Western academic culture, vast in scope and far-reaching in influence, took root, blossomed, and bore fruit in China. It changed the direction and pace of development of Chinese academic thought and even the entire society, transforming China from a traditional feudal society into a modern one. During this period, there were intense struggles and gradual integration between Chinese learning and Western learning, between old and new learning, and between traditional and modern academia. The 20th-century academic culture of China was born in this process of re-creation. The modern Chinese academic culture originated from Yan Fu's translation of Western academic classics. In the late 19th century, he translated "Evolution and Ethics" by Thomas Huxley, introducing the theory of evolution to the Chinese people and bringing about a revolutionary change in the mindset of Chinese academia. Later, he successively translated Adam Smith's "The Wealth of Nations," John Stuart Mill's "On Liberty," John Henry Shadwell's "Elements of Social Science," Herbert Spencer's "Principles of Sociology," Montesquieu's "The Spirit of the Laws," John Stuart Mill's "A System of Logic," and George John Romanes's "A Short Account of the Principles of Logic." These were fields rarely studied or written about in traditional Chinese academia, providing references for the development of modern Chinese economics, political science, law, sociology, and logic. In 1901, Liang Qichao published "Discourse on the History of China," explaining the difference between modern and traditional historiography: "As world academia advances, the role of modern historians differs from that of their predecessors. Former historians merely recorded facts, while modern historians must explain the relationships and causes and effects of these facts. Former historians recorded the rise and fall of a few powerful individuals, which, though called history, was merely a genealogy of a person or family. Modern historians must explore the overall movement and progress of human society, the experiences of the entire nation, and their interrelationships." He passionately called for the revolution of historiography, believing it was a matter of great importance to the fate of the nation. He said, "If the revolution in historiography does not occur, our country will be irredeemable. Among all things, this is the most important." At that time, Xia Zengyou wrote "A New Middle School Textbook of Chinese History," which was the first modern Chinese general history written in a chapter format. Other disciplines also entered the modern era at the beginning of the 20th century. In 1910, Shen Jiaben founded the Law Society and "The Journal of the Law Society," which can be considered the of modern jurisprudence. Wang Guowei and Luo Zhenyu's study of oracle bones unearthed from the Yin Ruins can be seen as the origin of modern archaeology. Zhang Taiyan's study of Indian philosophy and Wang Guowei's study of Schopenhauer pioneered the study of foreign philosophy by modern Chinese scholars. During the May Fourth Movement, Chen Duxiu and Hu Shi advocated literary revolution, giving birth to modern Chinese literature. Hu Shi wrote "Outlines of the History of Chinese Philosophy," the first analysis and study of ancient Chinese thought using Western perspectives. As for natural sciences, in the late 19th century, scholars like Li Shanlan, Xu Shu, and Hua Hengfang translated numerous works and laid extensive groundwork. In 1915, Chinese students studying in the United States founded the Chinese Scientific Society and launched "The Scientific Journal," marking the gradual development of modern Chinese natural science research. The 20th-century Chinese academia was a product of the advanced intellectual class seeking salvation for the nation by looking to the West for truth. Western theories and numerous works, like a flood breaking through a dam, surged into China. Chinese scholars, rooted in their own foundation, selected, distinguished, and absorbed, creating academic culture suited to their time. As Chinese scholars, born and raised in China, educated in China, were inevitably deeply influenced by traditional Chinese culture. The scholars of the 20th century, coming from the old era, were mostly proficient in traditional Chinese culture. The fierce anti-traditionalist fighters of the May Fourth Movement, such as Chen Duxiu, Li Dazhao, Lu Xun, Hu Shi, Qian Xuantong, and Wu Yu, strove to oppose and break away from old traditions to fulfill their historical mission of eliminating the old and innovating the new. However, old traditions had alreadyed into their blood, making it impossible for them to completely sever ties with tradition. As they themselves said, they had fought their way out of the old camp and turned their weapons against the enemy. Even "full Westernization" advocates like Chen Xujing could not escape the influence of old traditions. As long as you are Chinese and have been educated in Chinese culture, you cannot completely the influence of Chinese academic culture. "Today's me" cannot entirely oppose and discard "yesterday's me." Similarly, no 20th-century Chinese scholar, no matter how conservative or stubborn, could completely oppose Western academic culture. The superiority and advancement of Western academic culture became increasingly evident, and people could not help but accept it to some extent. There were no people who completely opposed and rejected Western academic culture. Modern life in areas such as clothing, food, housing, and transportation was largely influenced by the West—western suits, western-style meals, modern buildings, cars, and airplanes. Western civilization was everywhere, and whose life could be separated from these things? In Mao Dun's "Night," the character Wu Laotai is portrayed as ignorant and stubborn, yet when he comes to Shanghai from the countryside, he recites the "Great Response to the" but lives in a modern building and cannot travel without a car. The-dragging retro advocate Su Hongming was actually a university scholar with a comprehensive Western education. The major feature of the 20th century was the transition from conflict to integration between Chinese and Western culture, and people grew up in an atmosphere of being both Chinese and Western, neither Chinese nor Western, and a blend of both. The struggle and integration of these two alien cultures would not end in a short time. Historically, the introduction of Buddhist culture into China underwent the Han, Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, Tang, and Song dynasties. Confucianism and Buddhism engaged in fierce struggles and mutual rejection before gradually integrating, giving rise to Confucianized Buddhism—Zen Buddhism—and Buddhistized Confucianism—Neo-Confucianism. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, Jesuits brought Western culture to China. Although supported by figures like Xu Guangqi, Li Zhi, even the emperors Shunzhi and Kangxi, it faced strong resistance from Confucianism. After one or two hundred years, it faded away without taking root or bearing fruit. It is evident that the integration of alien cultures, especially the birth of new academic culture from this integration, is a long, slow, and arduous process. After the Opium War, the spread of Western culture in China marked the third time alien culture entered the country, with a greater scale and more far-reaching influence than the previous two. Due to the superiority of Western academic culture, traditional Chinese culture appeared inferior. By the end of the last century, Chinese learning and Western learning were in a fierce battle, and Chinese learning had been disorganized and defeated. It was necessary to learn from the strengths of Western learning, "taking the West as the teacher," and to recreate Chinese academic culture on the foundation of Chinese academic culture to rebuild it. Against this historical backdrop, through the unremitting efforts of Chinese scholars, 20th-century Chinese academia was nurtured, emerged, and displayed a new face and vigorous vitality. 20th-century Chinese academic culture, broadly speaking, has the following characteristics:
1. Guided by the theory of evolution and materialist history. Traditional Chinese academia praised the institutions and figures of ancient times, revered the sages and belittled the later kings, considering Yao, Shun, Yu, Tang, Wen, Wu, and Zhou Gong as the bearers of the Way. Later generations lost the ancient Way, leading to conflicts and struggles and the decline of society. In the late 19th century, Yan Fu translated "Evolution and Ethics," and the principles of social evolution became popular nationwide, completely changing outdated concepts. The Chinese people came to understand how to observe and study human society from an evolutionary perspective, arriving at conclusions entirely different from those of the ancients. Thus, 20th-century academic culture abandoned traditional concepts and established modern new ones. Around the May Fourth Movement, Marxism was introduced into China, and advanced intellectuals grasped the scientific materialist view, further understanding productive forces and relations, the economic base and superstructure, and the objective laws and subjective initiative of social development. They placed the study of academic culture under the guidance of materialist history and scientific methods. 20th-century Chinese academic culture made significant progress. All Chinese scholars of the 20th century believed in the theory of evolution. After 1949, Marxist materialist history held the dominant position, nurturing and fostering a large number of scholars under its guidance.
2. A new system of knowledge classification was formed. Traditional Chinese academia was divided into classics, history, philosophy, and belles-lettres, not strictly based on disciplinary classification. Among them, classical studies held the highest importance and encompassed everything. The "Book of Changes" included mathematics, philosophy, and natural sciences; the "Book of Documents" included political science, history, and geography; the "Book of Songs" included literature, art, and natural sciences; the "Book of Rites" included political science, ethics, and pedagogy; and the "Spring and Autumn Annals" included history and political science. Many disciplines were still in their infancy, not yet fully differentiated from the broad classical studies, with extremely blurred boundaries between disciplines. 20th-century Chinese academic culture flourished and became well-organized, forming a new system of knowledge classification. Natural sciences adopted the academic achievements accumulated over centuries in the West and became an independent major. Within it, disciplines branched out, establishing major fields such as mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, agriculture, engineering, and medicine, with numerous categories and rich content, reaching a high level and benefiting national and economic well-being. In the humanities and social sciences, literature, history, and philosophy were separated, forming their own specialties, with new disciplines such as economics, law, pedagogy, sociology, journalism, political science, and psychology emerging and becoming independent. Due to the rapid progress of human society in the 20th century, people's understanding of nature, society, and themselves deepened, with knowledge and information quantities growing immensely. Academic culture became increasingly enriched and expanded, completely breaking the old framework of classics, history, philosophy, and belles-lettres, forming a new system of disciplinary classification for modern social and natural sciences.
3. The application of rational methods. Traditional academic research methods were not precise enough, logic was not rigorous, and reasoning and judgment had a certain degree of subjectivity. Academic pursuits involved intuitive perception, deep contemplation, self-reflection, and self-cultivation. Certain irrational methods, such as those that were imaginative, intuitive, faith-based, speculative, or emotional, as long as they could express the real or illusory state of the research object, could form certain academic knowledge, such as ancient theories like the "Nine Seas and Seven States" or the theory of. In the 20th century, Chinese academia introduced Western research methods, using induction and deduction, emphasizing evidence, and adhering to the principles of "no evidence, no belief" and "single evidence, no conclusion." Subjective biases were abandoned, and a calm, objective attitude was adopted to conduct specific and accurate cognitive activities on determined objects. In natural sciences, microscopes, telescopes, and other scientific instruments and experimental methods were used. In social sciences, research methods focused on investigation and research to obtain firsthand practical materials. 20th-century academic culture pursued precise and specific understanding of the rich diversity of the real world, thereby recognizing its essence and laws. Modern academic culture values rational spirit rather than intuition, faith, or authority.
4. High-pitched patriotism. In the 20th century, imperialist aggression against China became fiercer, and the oppression of feudal warlords and the Nationalist government became more brutal. Internal and external troubles plagued the nation, and people lived in hardship. 20th-century Chinese scholars witnessed the fragmentation of the nation and the suffering of the people, filled with infinite compassion, awakening their sense of responsibility, and generously taking the salvation of the nation upon themselves. They painstakingly explored and dedicated themselves to research in various academic fields, all for the purpose of saving the country. 20th-century Chinese academic culture was born and developed in the stormy years of hardship. Opposing imperialist aggression and feudal oppression, making the country prosperous and the people happy, was the common strong desire of 20th-century scholars. Those engaged in natural sciences hoped for salvation through science, those in economics through industrial development, those in pedagogy through education, those in political science through national prosperity and stability, those in philosophy through reviving the national spirit, those in history through using historical experience to educate and mobilize the people, and those in literature by shaping the heroic images of the nation's unyielding heroes. 20th-century Chinese academic culture emerged alongside China's hardships, driving the nation forward, calling for national awakening, and inspiring the struggles of the masses. Therefore, patriotism permeated it, becoming its main spiritual support. 20th-century Chinese academic culture waved the banner of patriotism.