Ming and Qing dynasty colored porcelain

Author: Editorial Committee of "Beijing Cultural Relics Appreciation"
Publisher:
Publishing Date: 2005-04-01
Features: The Ming and Qing dynasties were the peak periods of highly developed and prosperous colored porcelain in China. Colored porcelain is divided into two major categories: overglaze and underglaze. The history of underglaze painting can be traced back to the Changsha Kiln of the Tang Dynasty. The Changsha Kiln painted on porcelain with brown, green, and blue glazes, featuring patterns composed of colorful dots, flowers and birds, figures, beasts, and poetry. The techniques were exquisite, and the compositions were aesthetically pleasing, opening new avenues for porcelain decoration. However, the porcelain fired by Changsha Kiln was underglaze blue on celadon, which differed greatly in style from the white-enameled thin-body colored porcelain of later generations. During the Song and Jin dynasties, colored porcelain underwent further development. The Cizhou Kiln system produced white-enameled black, white-enameled brown, green-enameled black, white-enameled red, green, and yellow, while Ding Kiln created white-enameled black, white-enameled red, white-enameled gold, and black-enameled gold. Jizhou Kiln produced white-enameled brown, and the variety was abundant with diverse styles and rich themes, including various patterns, flying birds, beasts, flowers and birds, fish and insects, figures, and poetry. The compositions were novel and lively, with a natural and unrestrained artistic style. Except for red, green, yellow, and gold, which were applied to the overglaze, all others were underglaze. Jingdezhen's blue-and-white porcelain in the Yuan Dynasty was the most renowned underglaze porcelain of that era. Underglaze blue first appeared in the Tang Dynasty, but Tang and Song blue-and-white porcelain were not yet mature, with low production and limited distribution, still in its early stages. By the Yuan Dynasty, blue-and-white porcelain had become the main product of Jingdezhen. The body and glaze of Yuan blue-and-white porcelain developed on the basis of Song Dynasty celadon. It was harder and thinner than the white porcelain of the northern Cizhou Kiln system, with a glossy and bright glaze. Various intricate patterns were painted on the body with underglaze blue, then covered with a transparent glaze that was slightly tinged with blue, fired in a single high-temperature process. The color of underglaze blue was elegant and bright, with a deep and rich green hue, creating a lively and pleasing effect. It was a visual delight. In addition to underglaze blue, underglaze red was also a famous underglaze porcelain of the Yuan Dynasty. Unlike the cobalt oxide used for underglaze blue, underglaze red used copper oxide as the coloring agent. Successful works featured vibrant red colors and graceful patterns. The decorative content and artistic style were similar to those of underglaze blue. There were also exquisite works where underglaze blue and underglaze red were applied to the same piece, combined with openwork decoration, creating a beautiful contrast between blue and red. Additionally, Yuan Dynasty blue-enameled gold, and blue-ground white flowers were also very valuable varieties.
The Ming Dynasty marked the third historical peak of Chinese porcelain production after the Tang and Song dynasties. During this time, Jingdezhen had developed into a national porcelain center, known as "the gathering place of kilns in the world," hence the saying, "In the Ming Dynasty, the finest and most beautiful porcelain was produced in Jingdezhen." In particular, the rapid advancement of colored porcelain production unveiled a new and most brilliant page in the history of ceramics for thousands of years. Ming Dynasty colored porcelain was renowned for underglaze blue, underglaze red, overglaze (five-color), overglaze and underglaze combined blue-and-white (five-color), and doucai, among others. There were also many other varieties such as white-enameled red, white-enameled brown, white-enameled green, blue-and-white red, yellow-enameled blue, yellow-enameled red, yellow-enameled green, yellow-enameled purple, red-enameled green, brown-enameled green, and sanycai (three-color). The Hongwu period of the Ming Dynasty was a transitional phase from Yuan to Ming porcelain. Hongwu underglaze blue and underglaze red porcelain still retained the style of Yuan porcelain in both shape and decorative patterns, and Hongwu porcelain often lacked inscriptions, making it easy to confuse with late Yuan porcelain. However, in 1964, fragments of a red-enameled cloud dragon pattern plate were unearthed from the Ming Imperial Palace in Nanjing, leading scholars to believe that Hongwu already had very fine overglaze red porcelain. The underglaze blue porcelain of the Yongle and Xuande reigns completely broke free from Yuan influences, forming a unique style of its own. Yongle and Xuande underglaze blue porcelain had fine, white, and thin bodies, with clear and thick glaze, slightly tinged with blue. The underglaze blue pigment was imported from Persia, known as suanni (). This pigment produced bright and deep green colors, but due to its high iron content, blackish-blue spots with tin luster often appeared where more pigment was used, becoming a distinctive feature of this period's underglaze blue porcelain. The use of suanni also resulted in blurring effects, similar to the ink bleeding effect when painting with ink on raw Xuan paper, creating a natural and expressive artistic effect. However, it was not suitable for depicting figures, so underglaze blue porcelain of the Yongle and Xuande periods had fewer figure designs. For example, the Yongle underglaze blue Hu people's dance pattern double-ear flat pot was affected by blurring, making the facial features and indistinct. This period also had underglaze blue porcelain with fine craftsmanship, without black spots or blurring, possibly using domestic blue pigment. The most popular decorative patterns of Yongle and Xuande underglaze blue porcelain were plant flowers and fruits, such as peonies, lotuses, tea flowers, chrysanthemums, morning glories, peach blossoms, bamboo leaves, banana leaves, scrolling vines, the three friends of winter (pine, bamboo, plum), lingzhi, pomegranates, loquats, peaches, grapes, melons, etc. Animal patterns included dragons, phoenixes, qilins, sea creatures, parrots, magpies, fish and algae, etc. There were also figures of pavilions, immortals riding cranes, the eight treasures, auspicious motifs, lotus flowers, chrysanthemum petals, tortoiseshell patterns, Tibetan and Sanskrit inscriptions. The shapes of underglaze blue porcelain during this period were also diverse, including plates, bowls, cover bowls, handled cups, tall-footed cups, pouring pots, monk's hats, back pots, three-lip bamboo (jie) handled pots, meiping, sky ball bottles, jade spring bottles, flat bottles, flat-bellied ribbon gourds, square cornered beast-ear bottles, cover jars, spout jars, water droppers, flower (jiao) pots, cover beans, octagonal candle stands, barrierless jars, large-mouthed jars, pomegranate jars, fish basket jars, incense burners, stationery boxes, funnels, and bird feeders. Many of these shapes were carefully designed, with rational structures and a dignified and elegant appearance. For example, the Yongle and Xuande curved handle long spout pouring pot had a body resembling a jade spring bottle, with a tall body, long neck, small mouth, and sloping shoulders. Gradually widening from the shoulder downward, the lower belly was large, with a short ring foot that was slightly outward. The two curves forming the outer shape of the pot were smooth and elegant, adding stability due to the center of gravity being lower. The long spout was attached to the middle abdomen, sloping upward, curving outward near the mouth, with the spout level with the pot mouth. To integrate the long spout with the body, a cloud-shaped short connector was placed between the spout and the neck, giving the spout stability and strength while balancing symmetrically with the flat long curved handle attached to the other side of the neck and middle abdomen, creating a harmonious design. The short ring foot, slightly smaller than the base, supported the entire pot, making it appear dignified, steady, and aesthetically pleasing. On this elegantly shaped object, various exquisite patterns were painted with underglaze blue, then covered with a rich and lustrous glaze that was slightly tinged with blue. After firing, the underglaze blue was elegant and bright, fresh and lively, natural and unrestrained, achieving the best artistic effect possible for underglaze blue porcelain. At the same time, it was also very practical for daily use, with a large capacity, a stable body, and easy placement; the long handle made it easy to grasp and pour. It not only met practical needs but also provided a sense of beauty. New shapes of the Yongle and Xuande periods, such as bamboo (jie) handled pots, high-top cover incense burners, cover bowls, flower (jiao) pots, cover beans, and ribbon gourd bottles, were all cleverly designed, aesthetically pleasing, and practical underglaze blue porcelain. The Xuande period's blue-enameled (snowflake blue) and blue-ground white flower ware, such as the blue-enameled helmet bowl and blue-ground white dragon jar, were extremely valuable works. The achievements of Yongle and Xuande underglaze blue porcelain have been praised as "opening a new era of unparalleled wonder," and this is indeed justified.
Underglaze red porcelain, which was created during the Yuan Dynasty, continued to be produced in the early Ming Dynasty, but its shapes and production volume were far less abundant than underglaze blue. Known (transmitted) pieces include covered meiping, covered jars, pouring pots, military cups, jade spring bottles, dragon-ear jars, bowls, and bowl stands from the Hongwu period, as well as three-fish tall-footed bowls, three-fruit tall-footed bowls, dragon-patterned bowls, and cloud-dragon patterned cover bowls from the Xuande period. The Xuande period also had underglaze blue and underglaze red tall-footed bowls and cover bowls. Underglaze red and underglaze blue were both underglaze techniques, with similar production processes, shapes, and decorative patterns. The most outstanding achievement of Xuande colored porcelain was the invention of a technique that combined underglaze blue and overglaze alumina red, creating the famous blue-and-white red ware. Transmitted pieces, such as the blue-and-white red sea creature tall-footed cup and the blue-and-white red sea wave dragon-patterned bowl, were extremely exquisite. The former depicted seas with underglaze blue, with rolling waves of blue and white, creating a dynamic and vibrant scene with bright red sea creatures leaping among the waves, forming a strong sense of motion with the contrast of blue and red. The latter took a different approach, using red for the sea waves and underglaze blue for various poses of swimming dragons, resulting in a novel, lively, and brilliant design, achieving the same artistic effect as the former. The successful combination of underglaze blue and overglaze red opened new avenues for colored porcelain development, leading to the new technique of "Xuande five-color" in the Xuande period, which combined underglaze blue with multiple overglaze colors. In 1985, two extremely rare and valuable transmitted pieces—the Xuande imperial kiln blue-and-white five-color lotus pond mandarin duck pattern bowl—were discovered in the Tibet region. This significant discovery was the first of its kind worldwide, and to date, they are the only two existing examples. (Note) This discovery resolved a long-standing mystery in the history of ancient Chinese ceramics, proving that the "Xuande five-color" recorded in ancient literature was not fictional. These two blue-and-white five-color bowls also had a very prominent feature: the use of doucai technique in some local patterns, which pushed the invention of doucai forward from the Chenghua period to the Xuande period. This necessitates a reevaluation of the achievements of Xuande colored porcelain. The Xuande blue-and-white five-color bowls had elegant shapes with outward-sloping mouths, slim bodies, and slightly drooping lower bellies, resembling the Yongle form. The two bowls were nearly identical in shape and decoration. The patterns on the bowls were exquisite, with underglaze blue playing a significant role. The pigment used was suanni, with distinct black spots and blurring effects. The inner wall of the bowl mouth was decorated with a ring of underglaze blue Tibetan auspicious phrases in neat and elegant calligraphy. The outer wall from the rim to the upper abdomen featured a ring of underglaze blue dragon patterns, with three horizontal underglaze blue lines forming a decorative zone. The dragon border was quite wide, accounting for about one-third of the bowl's height. The outer wall of the ring foot was fully decorated with underglaze blue sea creature patterns. The bottom of the bowl had a double blue ring with six characters in underglaze blue calligraphy: "Da Ming Xuan De Nian Zhi Zhi" (Made in the Xuan De Reign of the Great Ming Dynasty). Below the dragon border was the main pattern—a lotus pond with mandarin ducks. Two pairs of five-color mandarin ducks were depicted in the lotus pond, with several clusters of lotus flowers, interspersed with reeds, lotus roots, and floating duckweed. The mandarin ducks swam in pairs, with delicate craftsmanship and lifelike, natural poses. The lotus flowers swayed gently on the open lake, fully showcasing the tranquility of the summer lotus pond and the contentment of the mandarin ducks. The painting reached a high artistic level. The doucai technique was primarily used for the mandarin duck pattern. The male mandarin duck's crown was painted with deep brown and light green, its neck with deep red dots, then covered with red, with a red beak outlined in red. Its eyes and wings were painted with underglaze blue. Two fan-shaped three-tiered flight feathers were outlined with underglaze blue double lines, filled with light brown. The female mandarin duck had its eyes, crown, and wings painted with underglaze blue, while other parts were dotted with brown. The former matched the description in "Notes on Southern Kilns" as "using blue pigment to outline birds and flowers after painting, then filling with five colors, called 'filling color'," while the latter matched "painting half of birds and flowers on the body with blue pigment, then filling the rest with color, called 'doucai'." The fan-shaped flight feathers of the male mandarin duck used the "filling color" technique, while the female used the "doucai" technique. Both methods fell under the category of doucai. Although the doucai area was small and limited to local patterns, it held great significance, marking the beginning of doucai in the Ming Dynasty and being the earliest known example of doucai. The color combinations were harmonious and aesthetically pleasing, the lines were smooth and natural, and the painting was delicate and meticulous, indicating that the technique was already highly developed. Doucai technique had grown and matured within its parent body, the "Xuan De five-color," before eventually becoming an independent and valuable variety. The discovery of these bowls proved the account in Shen Defu's "Discussions from the Dusty Brush Studio" that "the porcelain of our dynasty used blue pigment to interweave five colors, surpassing all previous works, with the Xuan De porcelain being the most valuable" was truthful and well-founded.
In addition to the above, other colored porcelain varieties created during the Xuande period included white-enameled underglaze brown, white-enameled underglaze green, blue-enameled white, and yellow-enameled underglaze blue (yellow glaze was a low-temperature glaze applied to fired underglaze blue ware as a base color), as well as blue-and-white gold.