Chinese traditional political philosophy

Author: Zhou Guidián
Publisher:
Publish Date: 2001-07-01
Features: Section 4: Heaven's Justice and Morality in the Song and Ming Dynasties
After the struggles among the three teachings (Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism) during the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties and the Sui and Tang dynasties, Confucianism's theory of the Mandate of Heaven suffered significant challenges. However, by the time of the Song Dynasty, the influence of Heaven still persisted. Wang Anshi said, "The Mandate of Heaven is not to be feared," indicating that many people still feared it and used it to oppose political reforms. The brothers Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi founded the Lu School. They elevated the concept of "Heaven's Principle" and positioned it in opposition to human desires. They believed that "Heaven's Principle" was good, while evil arose from human desires. "The reason a person does evil is because desires tempt them" (Collected Works of the Two Chengs, Book 25). Being tempted by desires leads to the loss of Heaven's Principle, and "if Heaven's Principle is absent, what is the difference between a person and a beast?" (Ibid., Book 2). Losing Heaven's Principle makes a person no better than a beast. To preserve goodness, people must eliminate selfish desires, "Eliminate selfish desires, and Heaven's Principle will become clear" (Ibid., Book 24). "Preserve Heaven's Principle and eliminate human desires" became a highly important slogan of the time.
Someone once asked, "Can a widow remarry if she has no support?" Cheng Yi replied, "This is merely because later generations fear starvation, hence this saying. However, starving to death is a minor matter, while losing moral integrity is a major one" (Ibid., Book 22). Cheng Yi believed that observing chastity was in line with Heaven's Principle, while losing it was the result of being tempted by desires. The Chinese have traditionally valued great moral integrity, as seen in phrases like "losing great integrity," "losing integrity in old age," and "Su Wu's integrity was not dishonored while detained in the North." Mengzi's "The mighty cannot bend him, wealth cannot corrupt him, and poverty cannot move him" represents the spirit of a true man. Wen Tianxiang's "Confucius advocated benevolence, and Mencius advocated righteousness," facing death with equanimity, reflects national integrity. Mr. Zhu Ziqing's refusal to accept relief powder from the United States is also an example of national integrity. These individuals are the backbone of the nation. The reason the Chinese nation has stood tall in the East is that national integrity is a banner. A person cannot lack integrity. If a person lacks integrity, they will do anything for selfish desires, making life's goals and purposes nothing more than base actions.
However, Cheng Yi's view that a widow should not remarry has become outdated in modern times and was also incorrect even then. During the Southern Song Dynasty, Zhu Xi (1130–1200) offered many discussions on the relationship between Heaven's Principle and human desires. He stated, "The sages and wise have spoken thousands of words, all teaching people to understand Heaven's Principle and eliminate human desires" (Collected Conversations of Zhu Xi, Book 12). He simplified this principle. When asked, "Between eating and drinking, which is Heaven's Principle and which is human desire?" he replied, "Eating and drinking are Heaven's Principle; desiring delicacies is human desire" (Ibid., Book 13). In this way, not all human desires are evil. As long as desires are reasonable and appropriate, they are part of Heaven's Principle. Only excessive greed is the root of evil and the "human desire" that needs to be eliminated. This perspective on the relationship between principle and desire treats normal human material needs and reasonable desires as "Heaven's Principle," and this principle carries great authority. That is to say, the normal needs of people's lives, their food and clothing, are not desires to be eliminated but rather "Heaven's Principle" that must be seriously met. The so-called Heaven's Principle lies within normal human desires. The desires that need to be restrained are instead the extravagant and indulgent desires of rulers. Holding the sages and wise