Biographical Critique of the Academic Thought of Gu Jiegang -- A Series of Biographies of Famous Chinese Scholars in the 20th Century

Author: Liu Lina
Publisher:
Publish Date: 1999-09-01
Features: Looking back at the development of Chinese academia in the 20th century, it can be said that it was a century of abundance, innovation, and glory. Over a hundred years, renowned scholars emerged, stars shone brightly, achievements were abundant, and new ideas were constantly introduced. Traditional Chinese academia underwent transformation, while Western academia was extensively introduced into China. Through the exchange, collision, and integration of Chinese and Western academia, 20th-century Chinese academic culture was born and rapidly grew. Within a century, new breakthroughs and significant progress were made in various academic fields, establishing a complete system of modern Chinese academic culture. Reviewing and summarizing the academic development of the 20th century, distinguishing its right and wrong, gains and losses, is a meaningful endeavor. It is an essential step to advance 21st-century academia and further construct Chinese socialist academic culture. Traditional Chinese academic culture has a long history, profound roots, and has produced brilliant achievements and substantial accumulations. It has long nurtured the Chinese people, shaping the character and spirit of the Chinese nation, and holds an important position in the history of world academic culture. However, since the mid-19th century, imperialist invasions brought Western academic culture to China as well. The spread of Western learning to the East went through several stages: first, the dissemination of material civilization, followed by the spread of institutional and spiritual civilization, until Marxism was introduced to China. Western academic culture is vast and far-reaching in influence. Upon entering China, it took root, blossomed, and bore fruit. It changed the direction and pace of development of Chinese academic thought and even the entire society, enabling China to transition from a traditional feudal society to a modern one. During this period, there were intense struggles and gradual integration between Chinese and Western learning, between old and new learning, and between traditional and modern academia. The 20th-century academic culture of China was born through this process of struggle and integration. The modernization of Chinese academia began with Yan Fu's translation of Western academic classics. In the late 19th century, he translated "Evolution and Ethics" by Thomas Huxley, introducing the theory of evolution to the Chinese people and bringing about a revolutionary change in academic thought. Later, he successively translated Adam Smith's "The Wealth of Nations," John Stuart Mill's "On Liberty," John Stuart Mill's "A System of Logic," Herbert Spencer's "Principles of Sociology," Montesquieu's "The Spirit of the Laws," John Stuart Mill's "A System of Logic," and George John Romanes's "A Short Account of the Principles of Logic." These were fields rarely studied or written about in traditional Chinese academia, providing references for modern Chinese economics, political science, law, sociology, and logic, which thus emerged. In 1901, Liang Qichao published "Discourse on the History of China," explaining the difference between modern and traditional historiography: "As world academia advances, the role of modern historians differs from that of their predecessors. Earlier historians merely recorded facts, while modern historians must explore the relationships and causes and effects of these facts. Earlier historians recorded the rise and fall of a few powerful individuals or families, though called history, it was merely a genealogy of a person or family. Modern historians must investigate the overall movement and progress of human society, the experiences of the entire nation, and their interrelationships." He passionately called for the breaking of tradition and a revolutionary transformation in historiography, believing it was a matter of great importance to the nation's survival. He said, "If the revolution in historiography does not occur, our country will be irredeemable. Among all things, this is the most important." At that time, Xia Zengyou wrote "New Middle School Chinese History Textbook," which was the first modern Chinese general history written in a chapter-based style. Other disciplines also entered the modern era at the beginning of the 20th century. In 1910, Shen Jiaben founded the Law Society and "Journal of the Law Society," which can be considered the of modern jurisprudence; Wang Guowei and Luo Zhenyu's study of oracle bones unearthed from the Yin Ruins marked the beginning of modern archaeology; Zhang Taiyan's study of Indian philosophy and Wang Guowei's study of Schopenhauer pioneered the research of foreign philosophy by modern Chinese scholars; during the May Fourth Movement, Chen Duxiu and Hu Shi advocated literary revolution, giving birth to modern Chinese literature. Hu Shi wrote "Outlines of the History of Chinese Philosophy," the first analysis and study of ancient Chinese thought from a Western perspective. As for natural sciences, in the late 19th century, scholars like Li Shanlan, Xu Shu, and Hua Hongfang translated numerous works and laid extensive groundwork. In 1915, Chinese students studying in the United States founded the Chinese Scientific Society and launched "Scientific Monthly," marking the gradual development of modern Chinese natural science research. The 20th-century Chinese academia was a product of advanced intellectuals seeking truth to save the nation from Western thought. Western theories and numerous works surged into China like a flood opening a dam. Chinese scholars, rooted in their own culture, made selections, distinctions, and absorptions, creating academic culture suited to their time. As Chinese scholars, born and raised in China, educated within its borders, were inevitably deeply influenced by traditional Chinese culture. The scholars of the 20th century, coming from the old era, were generally proficient in traditional Chinese culture. The fierce anti-traditional fighters of the May Fourth Movement, such as Chen Duxiu, Li Dazhao, Lu Xun, Hu Shi, Qian Xuantong, and Wu Yu, strove to oppose old traditions and break away from them. However, traditional culture had already permeated their blood, making it impossible for them to completely sever ties with it. As they themselves said, they had fought their way out of the old camp and turned against it. Even "total Westernization" advocates like Chen Xujing could not escape traditional culture. As long as you are Chinese and have been educated in Chinese culture, you cannot completely break free from its influence. "Today's me" cannot entirely oppose and discard "yesterday's me." Similarly, no 20th-century Chinese scholar, no matter how conservative or stubborn, could completely oppose Western academic culture. The superiority and advancement of Western academic culture became increasingly evident, and people could not help but accept it to some extent. There were no people who entirely opposed and rejected Western academic culture. Modern life's clothing, food, housing, and transportation were largely influenced by the West: Western suits, Western-style meals, Western-style houses, cars, and airplanes. Western civilization was everywhere. Whose life could be separated from these things? Mao Dun, in "The Midnight Sun," portrayed an old gentleman from the countryside, stubborn and ignorant, who, upon arriving in Shanghai, recited the "Great Response to" but lived in a Western-style house and had to travel by car. The-dressed, retro-promoting Su Hongming was actually a university scholar with a comprehensive Western education. The major characteristic of the 20th century was the transition from conflict to integration between Chinese and Western culture. People grew up in a cultural atmosphere that was both Chinese and Western, neither purely Chinese nor purely Western, but a blend of both. The struggle and integration of these two heterogeneous cultures would not end in a short time. Historically, when Buddhist culture entered China, it took root over the Han, Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, Tang, and Song dynasties, with Confucianism and Buddhism engaging in fierce struggles and mutual rejection before gradually integrating. This gave rise to Confucianized Buddhism—Chan Buddhism—and Buddhistized Confucianism—Li Xue. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, Jesuit missionaries brought Western culture to China. Despite support from figures like Xu Guangqi, Li Zhiyu, even the emperors Shunzhi and Kangxi, they faced strong resistance from Confucianism. Over one or two hundred years, it faded away without taking root or bearing fruit. This shows that the integration of heterogeneous cultures, especially the birth of new academic culture from this integration, is a long, slow, and arduous process. After the Opium War, the spread of Western culture in China marked the third time it entered the country in history, with greater momentum and far-reaching influence than the previous two. Due to the superiority of Western academic culture, traditional Chinese culture seemed inferior. By the end of the last century, in the clash between Chinese and Western learning, Chinese learning had lost its footing and was defeated. It is necessary to learn from the strengths of Western learning, "taking the West as a teacher," and to recreate Chinese academic culture on its foundation to rebuild it. Against this historical backdrop, through the unremitting efforts of Chinese scholars, 20th-century Chinese academia was nurtured, emerged, and displayed a new face and vigorous vitality. 20th-century Chinese academic culture, broadly speaking, has the following characteristics:
1. Guided by the theory of evolution and materialist history. Traditional Chinese academia praised the institutions and figures of ancient times, revered the sages and belittled the later kings, considering Yao, Shun, Yu, Tang, Wen, Wu, and the Duke of Zhou as the bearers of the Way. Believing that the ancient Way had been lost, the later generations were filled with strife and decline. In the late 19th century, Yan Fu translated "Evolution and Ethics," and the principles of social evolution swept the nation, completely changing outdated ideas. The Chinese people came to understand how to observe and study human society from an evolutionary perspective, arriving at conclusions entirely different from those of the ancients. Thus, 20th-century academic culture abandoned traditional concepts and established modern new ones. Around the May Fourth Movement, Marxism entered China, and advanced intellectuals grasped the scientific materialist view, further understanding productivity and production relations, economic base and superstructure, objective laws and subjective initiative in social development, guiding academic culture research under the guidance of materialist history and scientific methods. 20th-century Chinese academic culture made significant progress. All 20th-century Chinese scholars believed in the theory of evolution. After 1949, Marxist materialist history held the dominant position, nurturing and fostering a large number of scholars under its guidance.
2. A new system of knowledge classification was formed. Traditional Chinese academia was divided into classics, history, philosophy, and belles-lettres, not strictly based on disciplinary classification. Among these, classics were particularly important, dominating and encompassing everything. The "I Ching" included mathematics, philosophy, and natural sciences; the "Book of Documents" included political science, history, and geography; the "Book of Songs" included literature, art, and natural sciences; the "Book of Rites" included political science, ethics, and pedagogy; the "Spring and Autumn Annals" included history and political science. Many disciplines were still in their infancy, yet to fully differentiate from the broad category of classics, with extremely blurred boundaries between them. 20th-century Chinese academic culture flourished and became comprehensive, forming a new system of knowledge classification. Natural sciences adopted the academic achievements accumulated over centuries in the West, becoming an independent major. Within it, various branches were established, including mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, agriculture, engineering, and medicine, with numerous categories and rich content, reaching a high level and benefiting national prosperity and people's livelihood. In the humanities and social sciences, literature, history, and philosophy were separated, forming their own specialties. New disciplines such as economics, law, pedagogy, sociology, journalism, political science, and psychology emerged and became independent. Due to the rapid progress of human society in the 20th century, people's understanding of nature, society, and themselves deepened, with knowledge and information quantities growing immensely. Academic culture's content became increasingly rich, its scope expanding, completely breaking free from the old framework of classics, history, philosophy, and belles-lettres, forming a new system of modern social and natural sciences.
3. The application of rational methods. Traditional academic research methods were not precise enough, logic was not rigorous, and reasoning and judgment had a certain subjective color. Academic pursuits included intuitive insights, deep contemplation, self-reflection, and self-cultivation. Certain non-rational methods, such as imaginative, intuitive, faith-based, speculative, and emotional approaches, as long as they could express the state of the research object—whether real or illusory—could form certain academic knowledge, such as ancient theories like the "Mythical Sea and Nine States" or the theory of (heaven and man's interaction). In the 20th century, Chinese academia introduced Western research methods, using induction and deduction, emphasizing evidence, adhering to the principles of "no evidence, no belief" and "single evidence, no conclusion," discarding subjective biases, and maintaining a calm, objective attitude to engage in specific and accurate cognitive activities on determined objects. In natural sciences, microscopes, telescopes, and other scientific instruments and experimental methods were used. In social sciences, research methods focused on investigation and collection of firsthand material. 20th-century academic culture pursued precise and specific understanding of the rich diversity of the real world, thereby recognizing its essence and laws. Modern academia values rational spirit rather than intuition, faith, or authority.
4. The spirit of patriotism was. When China entered the 20th century, imperialist aggression became fiercer, and the oppression of feudal warlords and the Nationalist government grew more brutal. Facing internal and external troubles, the people lived in hardship. 20th-century Chinese scholars witnessed the fragmentation of the nation and the suffering of the people, filled with deep compassion and a sense of responsibility, calling for the salvation of the nation. They diligently explored and dedicated themselves to research in various academic fields, all with the purpose of saving the country. 20th-century Chinese academic culture was born and developed in the turbulent and suffering years. The common strong desire of scholars was to oppose imperialist aggression and feudal oppression, to make the country prosperous and the people happy. Those in natural sciences hoped to save the country through science; economists hoped to save it through industry; pedagogues through education; political scientists through national prosperity and stability; philosophers through reviving the national spirit; historians through teaching and awakening the people; and writers through shaping the heroic images of the nation's indomitable heroes. 20th-century Chinese academic culture emerged alongside the nation's suffering, driving the nation forward, calling for national awakening, and inspiring the struggles of the masses. Therefore, patriotism permeated it, becoming its main spiritual support. 20th-century Chinese academic culture waved the banner of patriotism high.