Romance of the Three Kingdoms (1-5)

Author: (Jin) Chen Shou compiled, (Song) Pei Songzhi annotated
Publisher:
Publishing Date: 2005-02-01
Features: There are many versions of Romance of the Three Kingdoms, with common ones including the Ba Na edition, the Qing Wuying Dian edition, the Jinling movable-type printing edition, and the Jiangnan Book Bureau edition. Among these, the Ba Na edition is a photolithograph, while the other three are carved editions. The most widely used version today is the new-style annotated edition by Zhonghua Book Company, which is based on collation of the above four versions and incorporates the achievements of all experts in various fields since the Qing Dynasty. It can be said to be the most comprehensive version today. Listen to Liu Xinwu decode the mysteries of the Dream of the Red Chamber; follow the One Hundred Schools Forum to solve the mysteries of the twelve emperors of the Qing Dynasty; all authoritative documentaries from CCTV Channel 10, including Archaeology in China, Mysteries of China, and Exploration and Discovery, are fully included. Don’t miss it! The Three Kingdoms period was a distinctive historical era in the development of China’s feudal society, marked by the dominance of the three states of Wei, Shu, and Wu. The history of the Three Kingdoms lasted for approximately ninety years, from the warlord chaos in 190 AD to the unification of the southern plains by Jin in 280 AD. However, some historians start counting from 220 AD, the year when Cao Pi declared himself emperor. A more scientific approach would begin with 190 AD, as there was indeed a period of formation before the emergence of the three states. The Three Kingdoms were a continuation of the Eastern Han Dynasty. In the late Eastern Han, the landholding system of powerful landlords and local gentry rapidly developed, land consolidation became extremely fierce, and the mutual interference and strife between the eunuchs and the imperial relatives further plunged politics into extreme darkness and court corruption. Adding to this were the relentless wars against the Qiang ethnic group and the continuous devastation by natural disasters, which sharpened class contradictions and eventually led to the Yellow Turban Rebellion in 184 AD. Under the leadership of Zhang Jiao, Zhang Bao, and Zhang Liang, the rebel forces quickly expanded, posing a serious threat to the rule of the Eastern Han Dynasty. Emperor Ling was alarmed and dispatched troops to suppress the Yellow Turbans. He first appointed He Jin, the brother of Empress He, as the general-in-chief, stationing his army near Luoyang. He sent Lu Zhi to attack Zhang Jiao in Hebei and sent Huangfu Shi and Zhu Xian to attack another Yellow Turban force led by Bo Cai in Yingchuan (modern Yucheng County, Henan). In the battle of Yingchuan, Bo Cai’s Yellow Turban forces fought bravely and tenaciously, but Zhu Xian and Huangfu Shi suffered repeated defeats. Later, Huangfu Shi used fire attacks, taking advantage of strong winds to disorganize the peasant army, resulting in the deaths of tens of thousands of rebels. Bo Cai was eventually killed in battle. In Hebei, Zhang Jiao’s Yellow Turban forces fought against Lu Zhi’s army for a considerable period, with neither side gaining an advantage. Emperor Ling, suspecting Lu Zhi’s incompetence and fearing that Zhang Jiao’s peasant rebellion might attack Luoyang, replaced him with Dong Zhuo and Huangfu Shi, launching large-scale attacks on Zhang Jiao. Huangfu Shi used cunning tactics to deceive the rebels and launched a sudden surprise attack at night. Due to the rebels’ lack of combat experience and insufficient preparation, they suffered the loss of over 80,000 men in a single night. The defeated rebels retreated to Xiayuanyang (modern west Jin County, Hebei) and continued to fight against Huangfu Shi. However, due to the vast disparity in their conditions, the rebels suffered heavy losses, with over 100,000 men killed in battle. Zhang Jiao, Zhang Liang, and Zhang Bao all died in battle or from illness. Although the main force of the Yellow Turbans was crushed by the imperial army after nine months of fierce fighting and their leaders were killed, they did not suffer a complete defeat. Many remnants of the Yellow Turbans continued to fight in different regions until 192 AD, when there were still over 300,000 Yellow Turbans in Qingzhou (modern northeast Lixi, Shandong). In 205 AD, the allied Black Mountain Army still had over 100,000 men. In total, over 400,000 peasant rebels continued to fight for a long time. The Yellow Turban Rebellion failed, but it largely destroyed the ruling order of the Eastern Han Dynasty, plunging it into a state of precarious survival and accelerating its collapse. In 189 AD, Emperor Ling died, and the young Emperor was ascended. At that time, due to the immense power of the eunuchs, General He Jin, to control their influence, invited Dong Zhuo, who was entrenched in Hedong (modern southwestern Shanxi), to the capital to strengthen the power of the imperial relatives. However, the plot was exposed, and He Jin was killed by the eunuchs. Yuan Shao retaliated with an army, killing over 2,000 eunuchs. Soon after, Dong Zhuo entered Luoyang, deposed the young emperor, and installed Emperor Xian. Dong Zhuo was even more brutal to the people and completely disregarded the Han court officials, showing signs of replacing the Han Dynasty. In response, many political ambitious individuals took the name of suppressing Dong Zhuo to seize power. In 196 AD, Cao Cao escorted Emperor Xian to Xuchang, marking the beginning of the era of "holding the emperor to issue orders to the feudal lords." He used the name of the court to issue decrees according to his own needs, and the Han Dynasty effectively ceased to exist, with the Three Kingdoms period ushering in history. Cao Cao was eager to unify the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River as soon as possible. However, Yuan Shao, who dominated the northern regions of Ji Province (modern central and southern Hebei) and You Province (modern northern Hebei, Beijing, and most of Liaoning), posed a significant obstacle to his unification plans. In 200 AD, the decisive battle of Guandu (modern Zhongmou, Henan) was fought between Cao Cao and Yuan Shao. In the end, Cao Cao, outnumbered, defeated Yuan Shao, removing a major obstacle. Over the next two or three years, Cao Cao completely eliminated the remnants of Yuan Shao’s forces and achieved unification of the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River. Around the time of the Battle of Guandu, Sun Quan, in the south, inherited the legacy of his father and brother, dominating the lower reaches of the Yangtze River. Liu Bei, who claimed descent from the Han imperial family, also paid no attention and actively planned, prepared for strength, and waited for the right moment. He temporarily sought refuge in Jing Province (most of Hubei and Hunan provinces, and southwestern Henan). In 208 AD, shortly after the Battle of Guandu, Cao Cao, with ambitious plans, led his army southward to attack Jing Province and pursue Liu Bei. He also threatened Sun Quan, beginning to realize his plan to unify the entire country. Liu Bei and Sun Quan, following the advice of Lu Su and Zhuge Liang, formed an alliance to fight against Cao Cao. Zhou Yu, the main general of the Wu army, set fire to dozens of Cao Cao’s warships on the southern bank of the Yangtze River at Red Cliffs (modern Puyi County, Hubei), and taking advantage of Cao Cao’s disarray, the allied forces launched fierce attacks. With a total force of less than 50,000, they defeated Cao Cao’s army of over 200,000, achieving a comprehensive victory and forcing Cao Cao to retreat northward. After the battle, Sun Quan’s position in the south was consolidated, and Liu Bei seized parts of Jing Province and further west, gaining control of Yi Province (modern Sichuan and other areas). By then, the division of the world into three parts was largely established. In 220 AD, Cao Cao died, and his son Cao Pi succeeded him, deposing Emperor Xian and declaring himself emperor, establishing the state of Wei with Luoyang as its capital. In 221 AD, Liu Bei also declared himself emperor, establishing the state of Shu with Chengdu as its capital, which later became known as Shu-Han in history. In 222 AD, Sun Quan formally declared himself emperor, establishing the state of Wu with Jianye (modern Nanjing, Jiangsu) as its capital, marking the official formation of the three states. After the establishment of Wei, Shu, and Wu, large-scale wars decreased relatively, and each state focused on political, economic, and other reforms within its own region, suppressing scattered separatist forces to consolidate its rule. In Wei, Cao Cao began economic reforms before the Battle of Guandu, focusing on agriculture and establishing (tuntian) farming communities near Xuchang, which yielded significant results and provided abundant material conditions for later dominance. After Cao Pi became emperor, he expanded the scale of, constructed water conservancy projects, and developed rice paddies, leading to rapid recovery and development of the social economy in the Yellow River region. Politically, Cao Cao advocated "promoting talent regardless of origin," elevating many capable individuals. Cao Pi also recruited virtuous and talented people, and during the Three Kingdoms period, the Cao family had the most outstanding talents. In Wu, ruled by Sun Quan, large-scale were also carried out in the Jianghuai region, extensive water conservancy projects were constructed in modern Zhejiang Province, and advanced production technologies were introduced from the north, greatly promoting the development of the lower Yangtze River region. Sun Quan also actively engaged in diplomatic activities to promote the prosperity and development of Wu. In Shu, Liu Bei appointed Zhuge Liang as prime minister and actively developed production in Sichuan, sending capable personnel to manage Dujiangyan and constructing new water conservancy projects. To stabilize the rear, he worked to improve relations with ethnic minority areas in modern Guizhou and Yunnan, strengthening political, economic, and cultural ties between the Han and southwestern ethnic minorities. The Three Kingdoms developed unevenly in politics, economy, military, culture, and diplomacy. Overall, Wei was stronger than Shu and Wu, so for a long time, Wu and Shu allied to resist Cao Cao. However, later, conflicts arose between Wu and Shu over the control of Jing Province. In 220 AD, Wu seized Jing Province with a surprise attack while Guan Yu was fighting against Wei, killing Guan Yu. In response, Liu Bei led an army to attack Wu in 222 AD. The large-scale Battle of Yiling (north of Yidu, Hubei) ended with Wu’s victory and Shu’s defeat. In 223 AD, Liu Bei died from overwork in Yong’an (north of Fengjie, Sichuan). Zhuge Liang, following the late emperor’s orders, supported Liu Bei’s son Liu Shan and continued to follow the policy of allying with Wu to resist Wei, determined to seize the Central Plains and revitalize the Han Dynasty. However, his multiple northern invasions failed. In 234 AD, Shu launched another northern invasion, and Wei sent the general Sima Yi to counterattack. The two armies fought a battle of wisdom and courage at Zhaozhuangyuan (southwest of Mei County, Shaanxi). As the battle reached a stalemate, the victory uncertain, Zhuge Liang died in the army, and Shu’s forces were unable to continue, forcing them to retreat. From then on, Shu’s power gradually declined, while the Wei state came under the control of the Sima family. After Sima Yi’s death, his sons Sima Shi and Sima Zhao (succeeded one another in power), effectively sidelining the emperor. In 263 AD, Shu was finally conquered by Wei. In 265 AD, Sima Yan deposed the Wei emperor and established the Jin Dynasty, later known as Emperor Wu of Jin, with Luoyang as its capital. In 280 AD, Sima Yan gathered a large army to attack Jianye (modern Nanjing, Jiangsu), conquering Wu and ending the decades-long period of division and fragmentation since the Eastern Han Dynasty. The establishment of Western Jin replaced the historical trinity of the Three Kingdoms with a short-term unification of China. The Three Kingdoms period was an era of outstanding talent, where, through long-term political and military struggles, not only many political and military leaders but also numerous philosophers, writers, and natural scientists emerged. As a result, significant breakthroughs were achieved in politics, military, economy, and culture of the Three Kingdoms, which were passed down for future generations to inherit. The development of the Three Kingdoms was uneven, with varying durations. Wu, established by Sun Quan, lasted the longest, from 222 AD when Sun Quan became the king of Wu to 280 AD when Sun Hao surrendered to Western Jin, a total of 59 years. Next was Wei, from 220 AD when Cao Pi became emperor to 265 AD when Sima Yan deposed the Wei emperor Cao Huan and established Western Jin, a total of 45 years. Shu-Han had the shortest existence, from 221 AD when Liu Bei became emperor to 263 AD when Liu Shan was defeated by Wei, a total of 43 years. The complex historical process of the Three Kingdoms posed many challenges for later historians to study, and due to differences in their status, perspectives, and viewpoints, disputes arose over which state was the "" ( - orthodox). Some favored Wei and suppressed Shu, considering Wei as the orthodox; others favored Shu and suppressed Wei, considering Shu as the orthodox. In fact, there were indeed mutual ambitions between Wei and Shu to (tūnmì - -) each other, but due to various reasons, despite several wars, neither side succeeded in completely conquering the other. Wu was less prominent in these (tūnmì - -) efforts, and the concept of "" did not involve it. In reality, the wars between the Three Kingdoms were all aimed at expanding their territories and seizing leadership of the entire country, making the concept of "" unnecessary. The history of the Three Kingdoms is intricate and complex, marked by the rise of outstanding figures and numerous events. Romance of the Three Kingdoms is a historical record of the entire Three Kingdoms period. It chronicles the ninety years from the first year of Emperor Xian’s reign in the Eastern Han Dynasty (190 AD) to the end of the Three Kingdoms. Romance of the Three Kingdoms followed Records of the Grand Historian and History of the Han Dynasty but was completed before History of the Later Han Dynasty. Sima Qian’s Records of the Grand Historian is a comprehensive history, while Ban Gu’s History of the Han Dynasty is a dynastic history. Romance of the Three Kingdoms divided the Three Kingdoms into three books: Book of Wei (30 volumes), Book of Shu (15 volumes), and Book of Wu (20 volumes), totaling 65 volumes, creating a unique style within dynastic history. The entire book is clearly structured, with concise and lucid language, often displaying literary talent in describing people and events. The author of Romance of the Three Kingdoms was Chen Shou, styled Chengzu, from Baxian, Anhan (modern north of Nanchong, Sichuan), born in the eleventh year of the Jianxing era of Shu-Han’s last emperor (233 AD) and died in the seventh year of the Yuankang era of the Jin Dynasty’s (297 AD). He served as the commandant of Guanque in Shu and held various positions in the Jin Dynasty, including Court Historian and Censor-in-Chief. Before the Three Kingdoms period, histories of Wei and Wu already existed, such as the Book of Wei by Wang Shen and the Strategies of Wei by Yu Han. Chen Shou compiled the Book of Wei (30 volumes) and the Book of Wu (20 volumes) based on historical records of the time. As a native of Shu and a disciple of the historian Qiao Zhou, he had long focused on studying history and collecting and organizing Shu’s historical records, eventually writing the Book of Shu (15 volumes). These six-five volumes of Three Kingdoms history were combined into a single book called Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Chen Shou, as a Jin official, was commissioned to write history, naturally considering Wei as the orthodox, referring to its rulers as emperors and narrating them in "" (ji - annals), while treating the rulers of Shu and Wu as mere "" (chuan - biographies), and inevitably with biased praise or condemnation of the Jin rulers. Compared to Sima Qian’s satirical and revealing attitude toward rulers in Records of the Grand Historian, this was clearly inferior. This was determined by their different positions and circumstances, as well as the limitations of history and class. Romance of the Three Kingdoms is renowned for its concise writing style, but its brevity sometimes sacrifices detailed historical facts and vivid descriptions of individuals, making it less compelling than Records of the Grand Historian or History of the Han Dynasty. Therefore, the Qing scholar Li Ciming remarked in Diary of Yue Man Tang: "Chengzu was indeed a fine historian, but his intention was to be concise, resulting in excess of cutting and insufficient of literary charm. The characters of the time were no less than those of the Qin and Han periods, but Chang Sheng’s Records of the Grand Historian was far more vibrant, while Chengzu’s book lacked brilliance, and Fan Wei Zong’s History of the Later Han Dynasty was somewhat superior." It can be said that Li’s comparative study of history from a comparative perspective is objective. Over a hundred and thirty years after Chen Shou’s death, Pei Songzhi from the Southern Dynasties period of the Liu Song Dynasty annotated Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Pei Songzhi (372–451 AD), styled Shiqi, was from Wenxi County, Hedong Commandery (modern Wenxi, Shanxi), and served as the Vice Minister of the Central Secretariat during the Liu Song Dynasty, also a renowned historian. He annotated Romance of the Three Kingdoms at the command of Emperor Wen of Liu Song. He broke the traditional format of annotations, avoiding explanations of classical texts, institutions, and names, instead focusing on correcting errors and supplementing missing historical records. He cited over one hundred forty works from the Han, Wei, and Liu Song dynasties, with the text exceeding the original book threefold, and the quoted sources were complete. Even more valuable was that most of the original texts had been lost, and thanks to Pei Songzhi’s extensive citations, they were preserved, allowing later generations to glimpse the original book. The description of the Battle of Red Cliffs in Sima Guang’s Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government in the Song Dynasty was a synthesis of the relevant biographies from Chen Shou’s Romance of the Three Kingdoms and the historical records cited in Pei Songzhi’s annotations. Therefore, we can say that Chen Shou’s Romance of the Three Kingdoms is an important work for later generations to study the history of the Three Kingdoms, and Pei Songzhi’s annotations are also important reference materials for studying the history of the Three Kingdoms.