World History from Prehistory to the 21st Century - (Volume 1) (7th Edition) (Revised Edition)

Author: Stavros Stavrianos
Publisher:
Publish Date: 2006-10-01
Features: Purchase link for the lower volume of this book: A Global History - From Prehistory to the 21st Century (7th Edition Revised Volume 2)
Due to Alexander the Great's conquests, classical Greek culture spread throughout the Middle East, creating a new civilization. The term Hellenistic Age originates from this new civilization (see Chapter 4, Section 3). In 336 BCE, after inheriting his father Philip II's throne, Alexander first ruthlessly suppressed the rebellion of Thebes, forcing other Greek city-states to accept his rule. Then, in 334 BCE, he led his Macedonian troops in an attack on the Persians in the east. After crossing the Hellespont, he first occupied Asia Minor, then seized Syria, Egypt, and Mesopotamia. In 330 BCE, he captured Darius's capital, Persepolis, and conquered the entire Persian Empire. The following year, the conqueror continued eastward to the Hindu Kush and Bactria, and then moved toward India, penetrating into the Punjab. Only because his soldiers refused to advance further did Alexander have to retreat from India to Babylon, where he died of malaria in 323 BCE at the age of 33.
After Alexander's death, his generals fought for control over the vast empire for a long time. By the early 3rd century BCE, three kingdoms had emerged. One was the Macedonian Kingdom, which returned to its original state as a small, Hellenized ethnic kingdom. Although it did not directly rule the Greek city-states to its south, it essentially controlled these regions. Another was the Egyptian Kingdom under the Ptolemaic dynasty, which was rich in natural resources and protected by the sea and desert, making it the longest-lasting of the three kingdoms. The third was the Seleucid Kingdom, composed of the Asian provinces of the empire, and was the largest in territory among the three kingdoms.
Because these kingdoms possessed vast lands and resources, they had to engage in continuous, difficult-to-win wars against numerous enemies around them. They first ceded their Indian provinces to the Indian king Chandragupta, then gave Asia Minor to the Celts, and later lost Persia and Mesopotamia to the Parthians. Finally, in the 1st century BCE, Rome conquered the provinces left by the old empire along the Mediterranean coast, defeated Macedon and Egypt, thus ending the Hellenistic Age and ushering in the Roman Age.
Although Alexander's empire was short-lived, the successor kingdoms survived for varying lengths of three centuries, during which time the Middle East also became Hellenized. Egypt and the Asian provinces were rich in land, offering unprecedented opportunities. Tens of thousands of Greek merchants, administrators, teachers, professionals, and mercenaries were attracted by these opportunities and moved there from their respective city-states. This laid the foundation for the new Hellenistic civilization—a hybrid creation that was essentially different in almost every aspect from its predecessor, classical civilization.
Due to the destruction and decline of the city-states, the political structure underwent fundamental changes. To survive, the Greek city-states experimented with alliances. The Achaean League included all the city-states on the Peloponnese except Sparta, while the Aetolian League included almost all of central Greece except Athens. Although they are often depicted as federal organizations, in reality, they were merely alliances with little power in their central authorities. They were too weak and were established too