Western Literary History (Volume 2) 19th Century Literature

Author: Huang Jinkai et al.
Publisher:
Publish Date: 2003-08-17
Features: The turn of the 18th and 19th centuries in France was a period of turbulence. In the four decades following the victory of the 1789 Revolution, the French bourgeoisie and feudal aristocracy engaged in a life-and-death struggle. The feudal aristocracy, with the support of foreign reactionary forces, repeatedly launched counterattacks against the new regime, attempting to reclaim their lost paradise. Under this external pressure, the competition among various factions of the bourgeoisie also surged, and society remained in a state of instability. In 1792, after a second uprising, the French Republic was established; in 1793, the Jacobin Reign of Terror began; in 1794, the Thermidorian Reaction occurred; in 1799 and 1804, Napoleon came to power and declared himself emperor, expanding his empire through large-scale foreign wars; in 1814, Napoleon's defeat led to the entry of the "Coalition Forces" into Paris, which installed Louis XVIII and restored the Bourbon monarchy; in 1815, Napoleon launched the "Hundred Days," recaptured Paris, and was ultimately defeated at Waterloo. During the Bourbon Restoration, a large number of exiled aristocrats returned to France to reclaim their political privileges and economic interests, while the bourgeoisie, now well-established, was unwilling to relinquish its gains. Consequently, they engaged in open and covert political and economic struggles under the new circumstances. The aristocratization of the bourgeoisie and the capitalization of the aristocracy became their new direction for maximizing interests. The Bourbon Restoration ended with the July Revolution of 1830. The tumultuous historical process gave rise to a complex and multifaceted social mindset. The victory of the revolution, the Declaration of the Rights of Man, the Constitution of the Republic, and Napoleon's achievements once inspired people with fervent enthusiasm; however, the harshness and excessive violence of the revolution also created fear and intellectual confusion. The post-revolutionary distribution of interests, particularly the division of interests between the large bourgeoisie and the feudal aristocracy during the Restoration period, left the middle bourgeoisie and the broad masses deeply disappointed. All these factors contributed to the rich and varied tapestry of French Romantic literature.
French Romanticism emerged under the influence of Germany and England and was also a continuation and development of the Enlightenment under new historical conditions. The two writers with foundational significance for French Romantic literature were Madame de Sta?l and Chateaubriand, whose styles were vastly different. Madame de Sta?l (1766–1817), originally Anne-Louise-Germaine Necker, was the daughter of a former finance minister to Louis XVI and the host of a renowned salon that attracted many prominent figures. From a young age, she was immersed in a stimulating intellectual environment and demonstrated exceptional talent. After her marriage, she also organized a salon that brought together many distinguished individuals and disseminated liberal ideas. At the age of 22 in 1788, she published Letters on the Works and Character of Rousseau, enthusiastically promoting his ideas. She was also deeply inspired by the victory of the French Revolution, believing it marked the beginning of a new era. However, her dissatisfaction with Napoleon's autocracy led to long-term exile in England, Switzerland, and Germany, where she conducted in-depth research on German culture. Madame de Sta?l's two theoretical works, On the Influence of Social Institutions on Literature (often shortened to On Literature, 1800) and On Germany (1810), established her unique position in the history of literary theory as a rare female critic. She examined the dynamic relationship between literature and religion, customs, law, and other factors, reflecting the principle of historicism and one of the earliest attempts at cross-cultural research. Her most original contribution was her theory of geographical determinism, which proposed a distinction between Northern and Southern literature. She classified the literatures of Italy, France, and other countries as Southern literature, while those of England, Germany, and others as Northern literature, asserting that the former revered classical traditions, whereas the latter emphasized imagination, passion, and grandeur. She criticized the former while praising the latter, essentially advocating for the spirit of Romantic literature. Madame de Sta?l's contributions to Romanticism were not limited to theoretical foundations but also extended to her creative practice. At the turn of the century, her two works, Delphine (1802) and Cortés (1807), gained recognition for their fresh style and focus on women's issues, establishing her as the rightful successor to Rousseau and opening the way for Romantic literature. The protagonists in her novels were all virtuous and devoted to love, but the vulgar and selfish social atmosphere and societal prejudice against women pushed them toward tragic fates. It was widely believed that the protagonists' thoughts and emotions reflected the author's own subjective consciousness, and the overall structure of the works aimed to highlight the noble character and unfortunate circumstances of the main figures, thereby conveying a strong sense of social dissatisfaction. She boldly challenged society from a feminist perspective, earning criticism from conservatives. This criticism, in turn, demonstrated her courage and innovative spirit.
Chateaubriand and Lamartine Fran?ois-René de Chateaubriand (1768–1848) was a writer who had a profound impact on French Romantic literature and was even hailed as its "father." However, his political views and historical writings often made him a target of criticism. Chateaubriand was born into a declining aristocratic family in Brittany. Although it was a large family, he was particularly close to only one sister, with whom he shared a deep bond. He received a Christian education at a church school. When the Revolution broke out, Chateaubriand avoided the storm and his homeland, embarking on an expedition to North America. He left in April 1791 and returned in December of the same year. It was during this journey that he conceived two important novels. In 1792, he joined rebellious forces in Belgium but was wounded in battle and later moved to London, where he supported himself by teaching. There, he reflected on the French Revolution and wrote a "book of doubt and suffering": Essais historiques, politiques et moraux sur la Révolution. He acknowledged the inevitability of the revolution but expressed helplessness and confusion in the face of its realities. In 1798, his mother died, and he converted to Christianity as per her wishes. In 1800, Chateaubriand returned to France, where Napoleon was working to restore Christianity's position in the country. Chateaubriand was also preparing to write The True Spirit of Christianity. In 1801, he published the third part of this work, Art and Literature, as a standalone piece titled Adèle, which "shocked the readers of France with its stormy force" and brought Chateaubriand immediate fame. The following year, the full work was published, consisting of four parts: Doctrines and Dogmas, The Poetic Spirit of Christianity, Art and Literature, and Faith. In 1805, he published René, the "example" from the second part, as a novel alongside Adèle. As the foundational work of French Romantic literature, Adèle was a resounding success. A love story set in a remote wilderness captured the hearts of countless French readers in Napoleon's golden age and was quickly translated into languages across Western Europe. This could not simply be explained as "curiosity." The story's backdrop—a primitive forest in North America—was depicted with such beauty and strangeness that it captivated readers, while the tragic love story narrated by the "civilized savage" Chateaubriand moved the sentimental French deeply to tears. The young Indian Chateaubriand was captured in a tribal battle and sentenced to death. The daughter of the tribe's chief, Adèle, fell deeply in love with him and risked her life to save him. Together, they fled into the vast wilderness, where they lived a difficult yet happy life in freedom. When their passionate love threatened to blossom into marriage, a severe obstacle emerged. Adèle, of Spanish descent and a Christian, was forbidden from marrying a non-believer. Moreover, due to her youth and frailty, her mother had sworn that she belonged only to God and could never marry. Thus, consumed by love, Adèle tragically took poison, asking Chateaubriand to convert to Christianity so they could meet in heaven. Adèle's self-sacrifice for her faith was noble, though undeniably cruel. The theme of Christ saving humanity was embodied by Father Aubry, who, despite personal danger, devoted himself to preaching in this remote place, bringing "civilization" to many "savages" and improving their lives. In Adèle's tragedy, he served as a comforting "angel" for the people's souls. He argued, "Religion does not require inhumane sacrifices." He reproached Adèle, saying, "All your misfortunes stem from your ignorance—you have been educated in savagery and lack the necessary guidance, leading you to this path of no return." He also pointed out, "How dangerous it is to be fanatical and lacking knowledge of religion." Adèle explores the conflict between "savagery" and "civilization." The raw love in the wilderness is pure and powerful, stirring the heart. In contrast, on the "European continent," in the "material world," both commoners and nobles suffer and lament. What can truly save this world is Christianity—not the "fanatical," "ignorant" kind, but one imbued with humanitarianism. This doctrine, while not a perfect solution, largely met the psychological needs of the French people during turbulent times.