Han and Wei, Six Dynasties Calligraphy and Painting Theory

Author: Pan Yungao (compiler)
Publisher:
Publishing Date: November 1, 2004
Features: The Wei, Jin, and Southern and Northern Dynasties are often called the era of artistic awakening. This article also holds this view, but the upper limit should be extended to the late Eastern Han Dynasty. Calligraphy art is particularly so. Because, generally speaking, artistic awakening has three signs: the prosperity of creation, the emergence of authors with considerable skill, and theoretical summaries and interpretations of creation. In terms of calligraphy art, these three were basically in place by the late Eastern Han Dynasty. The Han Dynasty calligraphic styles widely circulated and used included three: Small Seal Script, Clerical Script, and Cao Cao Script. Small Seal Script was derived from the modifications of Great Seal Script by Li Si of the Qin Dynasty, hence also known as Qin Seal Script. Clerical Script was also derived from the modifications of Great Seal Script by Cheng Miao of the Qin Dynasty, simplifying its complexity to create a new style. Due to its simplicity, it was primarily used by clerks, hence the name Clerical Script. In its early stages, Clerical Script still retained many characteristics of Small Seal Script, but it gradually evolved, developing wave-like forms and becoming Han Clerical Script, also known as Ba Fen. Wei Fen’s Brush Formation Chart described it as “fierce and awe-inspiring like Ba Fen,” referring to this script. Cao Cao Script was first created by Shi You during the reign of Emperor Yuan of the Han Dynasty and was called “Ji Jiu.” During the reign of Emperor Zhang, Du Du, the Prime Minister of Qi, further developed it, earning the name Cao Cao Script due to Emperor Zhang’s admiration for it. It is said that Emperor Zhang’s fondness for this script led to an edict ordering Du Du to use Cao Cao Script for official documents. Later, Emperor Wen of the Wei Dynasty also ordered Liu Yi to use Cao Cao Script for official documents, which eventually became known as Cao Cao Script in later generations. Cao Cao Script is a simplified version of Clerical Script, “striving for simplicity and convenience,” yet compared to modern grass script, each character is independent, and the strokes are not connected. This was a new calligraphic style created by the Han people. The first two scripts saw new developments or innovations in the Han Dynasty, giving rise to the outstanding calligraphers Cai Yong, who synthesized the calligraphy of the Qin and Han Dynasties. Cao Cao Script also reached perfection, with great calligraphers like Cui Yuan and Zhang Zhi, who was later hailed as the “Sage of Grass Script.” Additionally, the Han Dynasty inherited two ancient calligraphic styles that later became lost. One was Ancient Script, which was used from the time of Cang Jie’s invention of writing to the Shang, Zhou, and Spring and Autumn periods. The other was Great Seal Script, which was a calligraphic style compiled by Zuo Dun, the Grand Historian of Emperor Xuan of the Zhou Dynasty, from Ancient Script. Both of these calligraphic styles were nearly lost due to the Qin Dynasty’s unification of the six states and the adoption of Small Seal Script. However, the Han Dynasty revived them, allowing them to be passed down and producing outstanding calligraphers praised by Zhang Huaiquan’s Brush Judgment. For Ancient Script, there were Du Lin and Wei Mi; for Great Seal Script, there was Cai Yong. As a theoretical form of calligraphic theory, this was a major sign of the awakening of calligraphy art, and during this time, works like Cui Yuan’s Treatise on Grass Script, Cai Yong’s Treatise on Seal Script, Brush Theory, and Nine Forms were produced, elaborating on the artistic characteristics and value of grass, seal, and clerical scripts. Especially in Nine Forms and Brush Theory, one proposed the view that “calligraphy originates from nature; once nature is established, yin and yang arise; once yin and yang arise, form and shape emerge,” elevating the act of calligraphy to the level of metaphysics and revealing the intrinsic laws and characteristics of calligraphy art. The other proposed that “calligraphy is about dispersing emotions; one must first disperse their thoughts and emotions, acting freely and spontaneously, before putting pen to paper,” linking the act of calligraphy with the expression of emotions, requiring an aesthetic mindset in calligraphy. It also demanded that “calligraphy should be profound and mysterious, like facing the highest authority,” elevating calligraphy to an exalted position. None of these could be explained by calligraphy as a mere tool for recording events; all of this demonstrated that calligraphy had broken free from its dependence on text and had become an art with independent aesthetic value. After the Wei and Jin Dynasties, calligraphy art further developed, giving rise to a large number of outstanding works and talented calligraphers. Zhang Huaiquan’s Brush Judgment ranked twenty-five individuals as having written “divine” calligraphy from the Qin Dynasty to the early Tang Dynasty, with fifteen from the Wei, Jin, and Southern and Northern Dynasties; it also ranked ninety-eight individuals as having written “excellent” calligraphy, with seventy-three from the Wei, Jin, and Southern and Northern Dynasties. Among them were great calligraphers like Zhong Yao, Huang Xiang, Su Jing, and Wang Xizhi and Wang Xianzhi. Calligraphic theory and criticism also flourished, introducing many new aesthetic concepts, categories, and ideas. For example, Wang Xizhi’s Self-Commentary on Calligraphy discussed calligraphy in terms of “intention,” emphasizing that calligraphy must have “intention.” Yang Xin’s List of Calligraphers from Ancient Times introduced the concepts of “fat” and “thin” to evaluate calligraphy. Wang Sengqian’s Ode to Calligraphy proposed that “emotion relies on emptiness to measure existence, and thought follows imagination to depict emptiness,” expressing the imaginative thinking in calligraphy creation. In his Treatise on Calligraphy, he proposed the pair of concepts “natural” and “skill” as standards for evaluating calligraphy. In his Praise of Brush Intent, he proposed that “the essence of calligraphy lies in its spiritual brilliance, with form and substance being secondary,” echoing the aesthetic views of “depicting spirit through form” and “vivid vitality” in contemporary painting art. All of these further demonstrated that calligraphy could not be explained as merely a tool for recording events; all of these showed that the aesthetic awareness of calligraphy art had become clearer and more mature. Han Dynasty painting art had already reached a high level, but it was still too early to conclude that it had begun to awaken. Han Dynasty painting mainly included:
1. Silk Paintings. According to Zhang Yanyuan’s Record of Famous Paintings Through the Ages·Discourse on the Rise and Fall of Painting, “Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty established the Secret Pavilion to collect books and scrolls; Emperor Ming had a deep appreciation for painting and opened separate painting studios, establishing the Hongdu Academy to gather artistic talents, bringing together the finest art from all over the world. However, during the chaos of Dong Zhuo’s rebellion, Shanyang was relocated westward, and silk paintings and scrolls were taken by soldiers as baggage. Of the seventy-six carts that were sent west, half were lost due to difficult terrain and rain.” This was a truly tragic loss! Such precious paintings and scrolls were taken by soldiers as baggage in the midst of war, and half were lost.
2. Silk Paintings from Tombs. Excavated examples include the silk paintings from the Mawangdui Han Tombs in Changsha and the silk paintings from the Yinque Mountain Han Tombs in Linyi, Shandong. The compositions of both are remarkably similar, dividing the scene into three parts: the heavens, the human world, and the underworld. Clearly, they were created for the purpose of guiding the souls of the deceased to heaven. While the characters, mythical creatures, birds, and animals depicted, as well as the specific techniques, differ—one with rich colors and a terrifying underworld, the other with simple techniques and bright colors—the similar content and composition of both reflect the Han people’s belief in the afterlife and the ability of souls to ascend to heaven.
3. Murals. The Han Dynasty saw a flourishing of murals in palaces, temples, and schools, used to honor meritorious officials and women of virtue and to spread stories from Confucian classics and histories. Wang Yanshou’s Ruliang Hall Ode provides an example of such murals. The Biographies of the Twenty-Eight Generals in the Post-Han History also records: “During the Yongping era, Emperor Xianzong recalled the meritorious officials of past dynasties and had their portraits painted on the clouds in the southern palace.” The Biographies of Su Wu in the Han History records portraits of meritorious officials painted in the Qilin Pavilion. The Biographies of Cai Yong in the Post-Han History, the Annals of the Empresses, and Zhang Yanyuan’s Record of Famous Paintings Through the Ages all record portraits of Confucius and his seventy-two disciples, women of virtue, and stories from Confucian classics, all of which indicate the prevalence of mural painting in the Han Dynasty. However, with the continuous wars and fires throughout history, the ancient buildings, primarily made of timber, were destroyed, and the murals that depended on them collapsed. Additionally, there were murals in tombs and brick paintings.
Regarding painters, historical records are scarce. According to Volume 4 of Zhang Yanyuan’s Record of Famous Paintings Through the Ages, there were two painters with considerable skill: one was Mao Yanshou during the reign of Emperor Yuan of the Han Dynasty, who was known for painting people “capturing the truth of their age, youth, beauty, and ugliness.” The other was Liu Bao during the reign of Emperor Huan of the Han Dynasty, who painted the Cloud River Map, making people feel hot when they saw it, and the North Wind Map, making people feel cold. As for painting theory, apart from scattered remarks in other writings, there were no dedicated texts. Therefore, the awakening of painting art can only be placed after the Wei and Jin Dynasties. After the Wei and Jin Dynasties, painting art made significant progress, giving rise to a number of highly skilled painters. Zhang Yanyuan’s Record of Famous Paintings Through the Ages ranked paintings into three grades and nine levels, with the top grade including Wang Yi of the Jin Dynasty, Gu Kaizhi and Lu Tanwei of the Southern Dynasties, the top level including Zhang Sengyou of the Southern Dynasties, and the top lower level including Wei Xi and Shi Daoshuo of the Jin Dynasty. More painters were ranked in the middle and lower grades. These were all primarily focused on figure painting. At this time, landscape painting also began to emerge, with Zong Bing and Wang Wei of the Southern Dynasties considered representative landscape painters of this period. As signs of painting art moving toward awakening, texts like Gu Kaizhi’s Treatise on Painting and Praise of the Outstanding Painters of the Wei and Jin Dynasties emerged, proposing major aesthetic propositions like “depicting spirit through form” and “transferring thoughts to achieve wonder,” requiring a focus on the spiritual appearance and individual characteristics of the subject. At the same time, it demanded “transferring thoughts,” encouraging imagination and adopting fictional techniques to achieve the “wonderful attainment” of its spirit. This was a major breakthrough in painting theory. Subsequently, Xie He’s Record of Ancient Paintings proposed the “Six Methods” of painting, placing “vivid vitality” at the top, requiring the lively depiction of the life force and spiritual charm of the subject. It also proposed requirements for “boneless brushwork,” “responding to objects,” and “assigning colors according to type,” essentially demanding both “spirit and form in harmony.” Therefore, the proposal of the “Six Methods” further enriched painting aesthetics. Alongside the emergence of landscape painting, texts like Zong Bing’s Preface to Painting Landscapes and Wang Wei’s Discourse on Painting also appeared. The former proposed the concept of “clearing the mind and savoring images,” believing that landscapes “possess substance yet are filled with spiritual charm,” becoming beautiful due to their “spirit” and “Dao,” thus revealing the aesthetic value of landscapes and landscape painting. The latter believed that landscapes “fuse spirit” and “move the heart,” further distinguishing landscape painting from geographical maps by that landscape painting “is not about mapping cityscapes, distinguishing states, marking hills, or outlining rivers,” and that viewing landscape paintings “has a different effect than the Shan Hai (Classic of Mountains and Seas).” This revealed the unique aesthetic value of landscape painting.
The awakening of art begins with the awakening of humanity. Of course, the “human” of this time was different from the “human” of the late Ming Dynasty, who emerged from the “theory of natural human nature.” The concept of “human” was broader then, including the relatively lower urban class. Late Ming scholars, starting from the “theory of natural human nature,” spoke of democracy, freedom, and individual liberation, all of which contained these connotations. In the Wei, Jin, and Southern and Northern Dynasties, this could be traced back to the late Eastern Han Dynasty, when the awakening “human” primarily referred to the upper aristocratic class or literati. They were part of the landlord class and a class that stood in opposition to the bureaucratic and powerful landlord groups, having emerged as rulers after the Eastern Han Dynasty. However, many were unwilling to join the ruling group, such as Ruan Ji and Ji Kang, Zong Bing and Wang Wei; others had served in office and then withdrawn from the ruling group, such as Wang Xizhi. The awakening of the aristocratic literati was premised on opposing the constraints of Confucian moral teachings and the divination and theism of the time. In the late Eastern Han Dynasty, the struggle against such constraints, led by the aristocratic class, was fierce, which is why Cai Yong’s awakening awareness in calligraphy theory was not accidental. Starting from the Wei and Jin Dynasties, as the philosophy that defined the era—Xuan Xue—proposed two propositions, it expressed this awakening. One was Wang Bi’s “moral teachings arise from nature.” This clearly sought to harmonize Confucian “moral teachings” with Daoist “nature.” However, he also spoke of “upholding the root to raise the branch” and “abandoning benevolence and righteousness,” showing his tendency to disregard rituals and laws in favor of “nature.” The other was Ji Kang’s “transcending moral teachings and embracing nature.” He was more radical, completely abandoning “moral teachings” and purely embracing “nature.” “Nature” was the highest concept in Xuan Xue, equivalent to “nothing” and similar to the Dao of the Daoists. Wang Bi’s commentary on the Laozi stated: “Nature is the name for speech that does not name; it is the term that reaches the extreme.” He also said: “All things take nature as their nature, hence it can be followed but not forced, can be understood but not grasped.” That is, the generation and transformation of heaven and earth and all things were natural, without external interference. Applied to human life, this meant opposing the constraints of moral teachings and following human emotions and desires. The aristocratic literati took the as the logical starting point, and in their words and deeds, they showed a focus on emotions, individuality, spiritual demeanor, temperament, and talent. From this, one can understand why the calligraphic and painting theories of that period so clearly expressed the awakening of art. For example, Wang Yi’s Letter to Wang Xizhi on Learning Painting proposed “painting is self-painted, calligraphy is self-written”; Gu Kaizhi’s Treatise on Painting proposed “depicting spirit through form”; Xie He’s Record of Ancient Paintings proposed “vivid vitality”; Wang Sengqian’s Praise of Brush Intent proposed “the essential path of calligraphy lies in its spiritual brilliance,” and so on—all were inevitable extensions of following human emotions and desires. The aristocratic literati’s also carried the ideological colors of preserving oneself and avoiding disaster, as well as a carefree and detached attitude. Because that was the most turbulent and unstable period in Chinese history, with frequent wars and fires, people’s lives were not guaranteed. Especially for the famous scholars, and particularly for those in the upper ruling group, the feeling of insecurity was even more severe. Ruan Ji’s famous poem “Poem of Lament” expressed this anxious mindset with the lines “My life is like walking on thin ice; who knows my heart’s anxiety?” Dong Jin’s prime minister Xie An, when he was at the height of his fame, wrote to the famous monk Zhi Dun with such despondency: “Life is like a fleeting guest; in recent times, the affairs of the elegant and satisfied have almost come to an end. I am filled with sorrow all day, and every event brings melancholy.” From this, one can understand why some aristocratic literati of that period were reluctant to take office, and even those who did often thought of retiring. They wanted to stay away from the court to preserve themselves. Yet, they were all literati and could not help but entertain themselves with poetry, wine, music, and painting, using these to express their emotions and desires. They stayed away from the court, avoided politics, and found refuge in nature, finding joy in the natural world. This was related to Xuan Xue thought and was closely linked to the Buddhist thought of the time. While escaping the world was naturally, it also opened up a new realm of natural beauty, which was a positive outcome. Ancient landscapes, as the environment for human survival, evoked awe. The Analects·Yong Ye proposed “the wise delight in water, the benevolent delight in mountains,” merely attaching human moral and talent to landscapes. Han Dynasty emperors frequently held sacrificial ceremonies on mountains, linking landscapes with the worship of heaven. From the Wei and Jin Dynasties onward, due to the exploration of the aristocratic literati, the beauty of landscapes began to be revealed, making landscapes feel more approachable. Zong Bing’s Preface to Painting Landscapes stated that landscapes “please the Dao through form, and the benevolent delight in them,” while Wang Wei’s Discourse on Painting said that “the foundation of form fuses spirit, and what changes moves the heart.” These were expressions of the aristocratic literati of that period revealing the natural beauty of landscapes.
The awakening of calligraphy and painting art also had another important condition: that many upper figures in the court, especially emperors, were lovers of calligraphy and painting, particularly fond of calligraphy. If counted from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen Dynasties, there were forty-eight emperors, with twenty-eight being calligraphers. Of course, this was partly because calligraphy was also related to writing. The Rites of Zhou stipulated: “The guardian teaches the state’s sons the six scripts first.” The Han Dynasty’s Regulations of the Military also stipulated: “Students over seventeen are tested; those who can recite nine thousand characters of Zuo Script are eligible to become officials. They are also tested in the eight scripts. The commandery sends them to the Grand Historian for evaluation, with the best becoming secretaries of the Ministry of Works. If the calligraphy is not proper, they are punished.” This was still the requirement for the children of officials; for the royal children who had the potential to inherit the throne, the requirements would naturally be higher. Therefore, it was not surprising that so many emperors could write. Yet, their love of calligraphy itself was a guiding force. For example, Emperor Zhang of the Han Dynasty’s fondness for Du Du’s Cao Cao Script led to its later being called Cao Cao Script. The Tang Dynasty’s Wei Xu’s Moss of Ink·Fifty-Six Types of Scripts states: “Cao Cao Script was created by Du Bo Du of Qi, the Prime Minister of the Han Dynasty, and was named after Emperor Zhang’s fondness for it.” This script later reached perfection through the development of Cui Yuan and Zhang Zhi, to the point where Zhao Yu’s Against Grass Script wrote: “Later generations, competing to admire the two sages, wrote essays, each compiling a volume, as treasured works.” Some even devoted themselves to imitating it, “forgetting fatigue, resting not at night, and having no time for food,” to the point where “their foreheads and necks were black like soot, and their lips and teeth were always black, their entire body covered in ink.” This craze for Cao Cao Script was undoubtedly related to Emperor Zhang’s fondness for it. Some