100 Men Who Influenced Chinese History

Author: Xiao Li et al. / Country:
Publisher:
Publishing Date: 1992-11-01
Features: Xunzi Xunzi, also known as Xun Qing, was a native of Zhao during the late Warring States period. His exact birth and death dates are unknown. According to historical records, he was active around 298–288 BCE, a time when the Warring States period was drawing to a close and King Zhao of Qin was preparing to launch a campaign to unify the six remaining states. With the development of feudal economy, the end of feudal fragmentation and the establishment of a centralized national state under a single ruler had become inevitable. Therefore, the struggle between political unification and the fragmentation of feudal lords had become a prominent issue within the feudal system, specifically addressing the problem of "divided governance among the feudal lords." In terms of ideology, the various schools of thought that had emerged since the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, which had served to protect the interests of different classes and strata, needed to be critically reviewed and summarized in light of the new historical circumstances. There was an urgent need to resolve the issue of "diverse doctrines among the hundred schools of thought" and to develop a comprehensive ideological theory that served the autocratic political system of the emerging landlord class. Xunzi, through his critique and synthesis of the doctrines of the Hundred Schools of Thought, integrated the strengths of various schools to establish his own philosophical system, becoming a representative of ancient China's outstanding materialist thinkers.
Qin was one of the strong states during the Warring States period. It enjoyed political stability, economic development, and intellectual vitality. The Jixia Academy was established during the reign of Duke Huan of Qi, and it flourished even more under Duke Xuan, attracting scholars from various schools to gather, share their academic views, write books, and discuss state affairs. At the age of 16, Xunzi had already become a well-read scholar. He shared his views with the Prime Minister of Qi, arguing that: "Now, a strong Chu looms as a threat in front, while a powerful Yan pressures from behind. A formidable Wei invades from the right, and the west is also in crisis. If one state plots an attack, the other three will surely join in, and Qi will face the danger of being conquered." However, his wise counsel was not heeded. Xunzi went to Chu and joined the erudite Chunshen Jun, becoming the governor of Lanling. During the reign of King Xiang of Qi, he returned to the Jixia Academy to teach again. By then, Tian Qian and others had left, but Xunzi became the most respected teacher, appointed as a minister and entrusted with overseeing the academy. During the time Xunzi led the Jixia Academy in Qi, he was slandered by some Qi officials and was forced to leave for Chu. Xunzi then came to Qin and discussed Confucianism and governance with King Zhao of Qin. Xunzi believed that Confucianism could be divided into two types: the Great Confucians, who advocated "learning from the later generations and unifying systems," demanding the establishment of a centralized state to serve the landlord class, and the petty Confucians, who "followed the ancient kings but were ignorant of the chaotic times," failing to adapt to the development of the era. When King Zhao of Qin's Prime Minister Fan Ju asked Xunzi for his impressions of Qin, Xunzi pointed out:
1. Qin's defenses were strong, and its terrain was advantageous. Its natural environment was superior, and the objective conditions were favorable.
2. The people within its borders were simple and unrefined, with music that was not vulgar and clothing that was not flashy, and they obeyed their superiors.
3. The government officials were serious and diligent, modest, frugal, and loyal.
4. The ministers were dedicated to public service, without factions, and their actions were just.
5. The court could promptly handle and resolve national affairs, so there was no need for the emperor to be restless after meetings.
From this, it can be seen that since King Xiao of Qin implemented the reforms of Shang Yang, the achievements Qin had made under the rule of law were not accidental but inevitable. Xunzi believed Qin was the best model for governing a state. However, he also mentioned Qin's shortcomings, noting that it lacked "Great Confucians"—thoughtful and capable landlords who could manage the state. Here, it is evident that Xunzi's views on governance combined both Legalist thought and the modified "Great Confucian" ideology he had transformed.
During the reign of King Xiaocheng of Zhao, Xunzi came to Zhao and was treated as a distinguished guest. He debated military strategy with Lianwujun in the presence of King Xiaocheng. When the king asked about the essentials of warfare, Xunzi believed that the purpose of unifying wars was "to suppress violence and eliminate harm," and the key to success lay in "uniting the people's hearts." Therefore, the essence of warfare was to "win the people's allegiance." He also discussed how a king's army should be led, emphasizing that it should be built on the foundation of "ritual and righteousness," which he called the "root." When discussing the qualifications of a general, Xunzi proposed the "Six Techniques," "Five Powers," and "Three Conditions"—three situations where a general might refuse the king's orders. He also discussed military laws and regulations, stressing the importance of strict discipline, centralized military authority, and policies that benefited both the people and the enemy during battles, ensuring victory. Xunzi drew on the military thought of the strategists, blending it with Confucian ideals of benevolence and righteousness in building and commanding armies, proposing a series of tactical principles with elements of naive materialism and naive dialectics. These principles provided ideological weapons for unifying the world through military force.
After this, Chunshen Jun changed his view of Xunzi and sent someone to Zhao to invite him back to Chu. However, soon after, Chunshen Jun was killed by Li Yuan, and Xunzi was dismissed from his position. After his dismissal, Xunzi remained in Lanling. He despised the chaotic politics of the time and deeply studied the actions and lessons of the Confucians, Mohists, and Daoists, summarizing and writing to clarify his own views. This was essentially a study and synthesis of the various schools of thought since the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, critically reviewing, absorbing, and developing his own comprehensive ideological theory. The book Xunzi contains 82 chapters and is the primary material for studying Xunzi's thought.
Regarding the question of Xunzi's school affiliation, since the Qin and Han dynasties, he has been classified as a Confucian. However, since the Song dynasty, opinions have varied, with some placing him in Confucianism, others in Legalism, some considering him a fusion of Confucianism and Legalism, and still others as an "external Confucianism with internal Legalism." Although he revered Confucius and was the founder of the Confucian school known as "Sun's Confucianism" (a branch of Confucianism that emphasized the Great Confucians), he also criticized Confucianism. For example, he criticized the Confucians who "followed the ancient kings but were ignorant of the chaotic times" as "traitorous Confucians" or "petty Confucians," and even included Zisi and Mencius, who claimed to represent the orthodox Confucian tradition, in his critique. While he valued the rule of law, his visit to Qin led him to believe that the absence of "Great Confucians" was a major flaw. Thus, Xunzi was neither a orthodox Confucian nor a typical Legalist. He was a landlord-class thinker who, based on Confucian thought, critically reviewed, absorbed, and developed his own independent system.
Historical View: From the entire history of the Warring States period, Xunzi observed the progress and development since the reforms of that era. Taking Qin as an example, it was originally a backward state in the west, living among the Rong and Di peoples. After the reforms of Shang Yang over four generations, it had become a strong state. "Its might surpasses that of Tang and Wu; its vastness exceeds that of Shun and Yu." The ancient kings could not compare to it. As society continued to develop and progress, Xunzi proposed the theory of historical evolution known as "learning from the later generations," which helped to negate the historical division among feudal lords and suited the political demands of the emerging landlord class to establish a unified state. This was a correct viewpoint that aligned with the laws of historical development.
In academia, Xunzi pioneered the summary, critique, and inheritance of the doctrines of the various schools, a demand driven by the times. Since the "diverse doctrines of the hundred schools" had led to the chaos and instability of the Warring States period, hindering the achievement of unifying the country, Xunzi criticized certain views of the Mohists, Logicians, Daoists, and early Legalists, but his main target was the Xisi school, whom he accused of being "" () or "incomplete Confucians." In Against the Twelve Scholars, he criticized Itao and Wei Mou for their indulgence and lack of adherence to ritual and righteousness, yet their arguments were coherent enough to mislead people. Chen Zhong and Shi Qiu sought to stand out by being unconventional. Mozi and Song Jia failed to understand the principle of "uniting the country and establishing the state." Shen Dao and Tian Qian revered the law but lacked principles. Hui Shi and Deng Xi did not understand the feudal hierarchy and indulged in strange and speculative theories, making them unsuitable as principles for governing the state. Zisi and Mencius, in their "following the ancient kings," were merely pretentious, concocting absurd theories based on ancient times, lacking coherence and reason.
While criticizing the "diverse doctrines of the hundred schools," Xunzi also absorbed the strengths of various schools to express his ideal of "uniting the country and enriching all things," achieving feudal unification and making "all who are capable submit." He established a new ideological framework for the landlord class, serving the centralized state with the goal of "completing all, unifying words and deeds, and harmonizing categories."
Xunzi's Against the Twelve Scholars is one of the earliest academic historical discussions.
View of Heaven: Xunzi accepted the Daoist view that "Heaven can produce things but cannot distinguish them," believing that Heaven had no will. "The course of Heaven is constant; it does not exist for Yao and does not perish for Jie; it brings good when it should, and bad when it should." People could master the laws of nature, so he proposed the famous argument that "to control Heaven's mandate and use it" (), a notion of human mastery over destiny.