Six Dynasties Culture

Author: Xu Hui, Qiu Min, Hu Axiang, Editors
Publisher:
Publishing Date: 2001-01-01
Features: II. Philosophy of Life
The Six Dynasties period was an era of frequent warfare in Chinese history, but also a time of great intellectual liberation. The rise of Xuanxue (Neo-Daoism) led to unprecedented intellectual activity among the scholars of the Six Dynasties. The emergence of individual consciousness among the literati transformed into various contradictions in social life. With the collapse of the Han Empire, the decline of Confucianism, the relaxation of ritual propriety, and the rise of Lao-Zhuang thought, individual freedom and intellectual liberation became a cultural spirit of the times, intensifying the conflicts between nature and ritual, the individual and society. Against this backdrop of contradiction and conflict, the Six Dynasties was also an era without intellectual authority but in the process of reconstructing new values. People freely designed ideal personalities and chose life attitudes based on their individuality, thoughts, and knowledge. Amidst a mix of confusion and pursuit, doubt and exploration, they embraced both a deep attachment to life and a transcendent detachment from death; both material enjoyment and spiritual freedom; both a state of intoxication and ignorance, and a composed resilience in adversity; both illusory worlds of immortals and Buddhist deities, and a critical realism toward the world; both the cultivation of self-cultivation in tranquility, and a transcendent detachment from worldly affairs. All of this formed the rich and diverse tapestry of the Six Dynasties' philosophy of life.
1. Contemplation on the Duality of Life and Death
Life is grounded in the reality of existence. As there is life, there is death, and life is always finite. The meditation on death and the contemplation of life—thinking about the contradiction between life and death—constitute the logical starting point of traditional Chinese philosophy of life and also the contemporary issue faced by the Six Dynasties. In ancient times, due to the absence of surplus value and extremely low living standards, coupled with ignorance, primitive people did not feel fear or sorrow about death. As productivity and cultural quality improved, people began to realize the inevitability of death, leading to laments about the passage of time and a faint sense of sorrow. Faced with the contradiction between the infinite universe and finite human life, Confucianism emphasized life over death and avoided addressing the issue of death. Confucius wisely replied to the contradiction between life and death: "Before knowing life, how can one know death?" When facing the endless flow of the Yellow River, he directly felt the irreversibility of time and said, "The past flows like this, day and night," lamenting the swift passage of life, which disappears forever. However, he did not succumb to pessimism over the finitude of life. When he said, "If one understands the Way in the morning, one can die contented in the evening," he was aware that once one grasps the value of life and strives to embrace this finite existence to the fullest, death would be without regret. Confucianism approached the issue of human life and death with a rationalist attitude.
Daoism, on the other hand, adopted a naturalistic attitude toward human life, did not shy away from the topic of death, and considered life and death together, making its view of life more dialectical than Confucianism. Faced with death, Zhuangzi exhibited the detachment and wisdom of a philosopher: "Life comes and cannot be stopped, and death comes and cannot be restrained"; "Human life is born with sorrow"; "Human life is the gathering of qi. When gathered, it is life; when scattered, it is death." This means that life and death are interconnected natural changes, "Life without joy, death without misfortune." The intense expression of grief over death and longing for life became particularly pronounced during the Eastern Han and the Wei-Jin periods. Since the Eastern Han, with the frequent changes of dynasties, the powerful had mercilessly killed their opponents, wars were frequent, epidemics spread, and countless deaths occurred. People deeply felt that time was running out and lamented the brevity of life, intensifying the contradiction between life and death. Additionally, during this time, the emphasis on the aristocracy meant that if one retired, the family would have no support, while serving in a chaotic dynasty posed a risk to one's life. To seek self-preservation, people tried to reconcile the contradictions between advancement, retreat, and political involvement. Moreover, with productivity reaching a certain level and comfortable living conditions, people realized the preciousness of life, but the brevity of life also evoked fear of death.
Research shows that the lifespan of the literati during the Wei-Jin and Six Dynasties periods was generally short. Faced with the painful realities of society, they lamented the brevity of life. The unpredictability of life and death, coupled with strong desires and attachments to reality, led many to seek immortality through alchemy and herbs, indulging in wine and freedom, engaging in discussions about Lao-Zhuang, and practicing dual cultivation of Xuanxue. They lived freely and philosophically, indulging in pleasure while contemplating the meaning of life. The rise of individual consciousness during the Six Dynasties led to the collapse of emotional control, and the literati realized the difficulty of life and the certainty of death. This gave rise to the idea of "valuing life" and inherited and promoted the Daoist theory of "valuing life, preserving the body, and fulfilling nature." They passionately explored the essence of life in pursuit of the right to live. People's attention focused on their own life value, and they were filled with confusion and sorrow over death. In this context, the lamentation of "the brevity of life" resonated deeply. The fundamental reason why the Six Dynasties literati favored alchemy was their awareness of life's brevity and the passage of time.
The Record of the World (Shishuo Xinyu) records in the Literature Chapter: "Wang Xiaobo (Gong) was walking in the capital, passing in front of his younger brother Wang Ju's door. He asked, 'What line in ancient poetry is the best?' Wang Ju was thinking but could not answer. Wang Gong recited, 'What I encountered was no longer there, how could I not grow old quickly?' This line was excellent." Wang Gong's appreciation for these lines was connected to his practice of alchemy and wandering. Since the late Han Dynasty, people had attempted to extend their lives and even achieve immortality through alchemy and herbs. The Record of the World (Speech Chapter) records: "Duke Huan of the Eastern Jin marched north and passed by Jincheng. He saw willows planted during the former King of Luoyang, all now ten feet in circumference, and sighed, 'Trees can grow like this, how can people stand it?' He reached out, broke branches, and wept with emotion." Duke Huan of the Eastern Jin, a young general with a bold and ambitious spirit, was deeply moved by the sight of the willows he had planted earlier, now towering to ten feet. He reflected on the unvanquished northern invaders and the lingering remnants of chaos. As he led his troops in battle, he felt the swift passage of time, lamented his unfinished ambitions, and mourned the insignificance of life, moved to tears by the scene. Later, Yu Xin wrote a poignant and moving lyric poem in his Elegy on a withered tree: "In the past, I planted willows in H???an, leaning gently; now I meet them shedding, sorrowful by the Jiangtan; trees can grow like this, how can people stand it?"
The universe is infinite, but human life is finite; ambitions are boundless, but lifespans are too short. This trapped countless scholars in endless confusion, sorrow, fear, and bewilderment. Duke Huan's spirit of dedicating life to the cause was rare and admirable. Beyond Duke Huan's attitude of actively pursuing achievement and ambition, how did the Six Dynasties literati find solace for their restless minds? Historical records of the Six Dynasties, especially the Record of the World, the History of the Jin Dynasty, and the Biographies of Buddhist Monks, contain many accounts of interactions between famous monks and literati of the time, who sought spiritual solace in the words of Xuanxue and Buddhist philosophy.
Zhidun, a famous monk in the Eastern Jin's Jiangnan region, styled Daolin, was versed in both Buddhism and Xuanxue and had close ties with the upper-class literati of the Eastern Jin, such as Xie An, Yin Hao, Xu Xun, and Wang Xizhi. The History of the Jin Dynasty (Biography of Xie An) states that before entering official service, Xie An "lived in Jieshi, associating with Wang Xizhi and the high-yang Xu Xun and the Buddhist monk Zhidun. He went fishing and hunting in the mountains and waters, and indoors, he chatted and wrote poetry." Wang Xizhi wrote the famous Preface to the Orchid Pavilion Collection, which focused entirely on the themes of "life and death." In the ninth year of the Yonghe era, Wang Xizhi invited his friends to gather at the Orchid Pavilion, where they drank wine and recited poetry in a festive atmosphere. At that moment, Wang Xizhi gazed at the vast universe and observed the abundance of life, prompting reflections on life: "When people associate with each other, in the space of a lifetime, some take their thoughts and nourish them within a room; others find solace in what they cherish and roam beyond their physical forms. Though their choices and temperaments vary, when they delight in what they encounter and momentarily find contentment, they are unaware that old age is approaching. When their interests wane, their emotions change, and regrets follow. What they once cherished, in the blink of an eye, becomes a memory, yet they cannot help but be moved by it. How much more so when life's length is determined by fate and it all ends in death. The ancients said, 'Life and death are great matters—how can they not be painful?'