Buddhism spread to China

Author: Jia Yingyi
Publisher:
Publishing Date: 2006-05-01
Features: China is one of the ancient civilizations of the world, with a long history and profound cultural heritage. In history, there were three periods of openness: first, the absorption of Buddhist culture during the Wei, Jin, and Southern and Northern Dynasties; second, the acceptance of Western and Central Asian civilizations through the "Silk Road" during the Sui and Tang dynasties; and third, the introduction of Christianity into China during the Ming and Qing dynasties. Although there were many other less concentrated periods of cultural dissemination, and there are various debates and doubts about these periods, it is undeniable that the influence of Buddhist culture on China is so deep and pervasive that it permeates the very marrow and reaches the heart. It is almost impossible to avoid the foreign Buddhist culture and refine a truly pure "national essence." The spread of Buddhism to the East was not just a religious event. Along with the Buddhist ship came equally excellent cultures from India, Greece, Persia, and Central Asia. Sculpture, painting, music, art, products, treasures, craftsmanship, technology, ideas, logic, character, customs—everything, diverse and, crossed the vast seas and arrived in China on this ship. Horizons, intellect, literary talent, and perspectives were all transformed. It cannot be denied that Buddhist culture has changed China to a certain extent. Buddhism emerged around the 5th century BCE in India. At that time, India was undergoing a period of great turmoil and transformation: some regions established slave states, while others remained in the tribal league period. A social hierarchy—the caste system—had emerged: Brahmins were at the top, enjoying the privilege of teaching and interpreting the Vedas and presiding over rituals; Kshatriyas were the military aristocracy; Vaishyas were the third class, engaged in agriculture, pastoralism, and commerce; and Shudras were the exploited class. The rulers' "vulgar greed, crude desires, base material desires, and selfish plunder of public property, as well as taxes, usury, and extortion, caused unprecedented suffering in people's lives." Interstate wars of conquest occurred constantly, and the military and political power of the Kshatriya caste surged. With the development of social productivity, the economic strength of the Vaishya caste grew increasingly robust. Old ideas were opposed by the masses, and the intellectual world was vibrant, with various philosophies and heresies holding no clear consensus. Faced with the corruption of rulers, social chaos, and the suffering of the poor, some people sought to withdraw from social life, becoming "Sramanas" and living in the wilderness, "wearing tree bark, eating acorns, drinking water with their hands, remaining unmarried and childless, practicing asceticism, and sitting motionless for days." The founder of Buddhism, Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha), was born into such an era. He was a real historical figure, born into the royal family of Kapilavastu (now in Nepal) in ancient India. His family name was Gautama, and his given name was Siddhartha; "Sakyas" was the name of his clan, and "Muni" means "sage." After his birth, his mother passed away, and he was raised by his aunt. According to Kshatriya customs, he began studying scriptures, Vedas, and martial arts at the age of eight, becoming proficient in "sixty-four types of scripts" and receiving the best education. At the age of seventeen, he married a beautiful woman named Yasodhara and had a son, according to legend. From a young age, he loved to meditate and ponder social and life issues, deeply feeling the impermanence of worldly affairs and desiring to escape the suffering of life. At the age of twenty-nine, he abandoned his wealth and luxurious life, left home one night, shaved his head and beard, and became a "Sramana." He first went to the ascetic forest of Begadha for rigorous self-discipline, then found Alara Kalama for ascetic practices, and later followed another Sramana to learn meditation. Although he underwent six years of self-discipline, his body became frail and weak, he still could not escape the suffering of impermanence or achieve liberation. Determined to persevere, he took a bath in the Nairanjana River, resumed eating, and meditated under a Bodhi tree for seven days and nights. He reflected on the suffering of birth, old age, sickness, and death, explained its root cause using the concept of "reincarnation," and proposed a set of fundamental Buddhist ideas, including the "Twelve Causes and Conditions," the "Eightfold Path," and the "Four Noble Truths," achieving enlightenment. At the age of thirty-five, he finally became a sage—"the Buddha." From then on, Siddhartha Gautama traveled widely to preach, his footsteps covering northern and central India. He organized a monastic community, befriended kings, connected with merchants and wealthy individuals, established numerous monasteries, and formulated a set of organizational rules for the monastic community. He vigorously opposed the "Brahminical supremacy," advocated "equality among the four castes," and showed kindness and gentleness to all living beings. He proposed that followers of the Sakyas should not discriminate based on caste but instead follow an order of seniority. He promoted his Buddhist teachings and ideals until his death at the age of eighty. Siddhartha Gautama's teachings gained the support of the rising "third class" and quickly spread throughout India. India is an ancient civilization that values philosophy and is rich in imagination. As Buddhist teachings spread widely, the number of monks increased, and the fascinating life of Siddhartha Gautama was passed down among believers, becoming more and more mythical. Siddhartha Gautama, a real historical figure, transformed into a religious idol and even a god. Buddhist theory became increasingly complex, and strict monastic orders could no longer meet societal needs, while the more liberal and mythological elements of his teachings made them more religious. In a society filled with myths and magic, this deification was inevitable. The deification of Siddhartha Gautama provided a rich source of inspiration for Buddhist art. Along with the birth of Buddhism, Buddhist art, which used imagery and metaphors to propagate Buddhist teachings, also began to emerge. Developing on the foundation of India's indigenous art, Buddhist art initially took the form of inscriptions carved on cliffs and pillars during the reign of Emperor Ashoka (268–232 BCE), known as the Ashoka Pillars. The tops of these pillars were adorned with elaborate capitals. The Ashoka edicts also mention the construction of stupas. Stupas were burial mounds of ancient Indians, built by piling earth and sometimes encased in stone. The remains of the deceased were buried beneath them, and the stupas were covered with intricate carvings, serving as objects of worship. Meanwhile, caves were dug into mountains, monasteries were built, statues were carved, and murals were painted. Early sculptures were mostly reliefs, lacking strong three-dimensionality. The figures were often frontal and, with bulky shapes and rigid, lifeless facial expressions. Despite the meticulous depiction of accessories such as turbans and jewelry, these stiff forms could not be hidden. The animals, however, were more delicate and lifelike. These characteristics reflected the simple style of ancient Indian art. During the subsequent Sunga Dynasty (187–72 BCE) and Satavahana Dynasty (30 BCE–3rd century CE, the Pahlava Empire), the Buddhist art initiated by Ashoka continued to develop. Whether it was the famous Barhut and Sanchi stupas or the Bhaja and Ajanta caves, the architecture was grand and solemn, and the carvings were vivid and exquisite. The themes of Buddhist art during this period, such as the Jataka tales, the life of the Buddha, protective deities, decorative patterns, and donors, were already well-established. However, the main object of worship—the image of the Buddha—had not yet appeared, replaced instead by elements such as the Bodhi tree, the Dharma wheel, the umbrella, and the footprints. Later, during the Kushan Dynasty, the image of the Buddha was created, and the "Mathura art" developed in the middle reaches of the Ganges, near present-day New Delhi. The "Gandharan art," which emerged during the Gupta Dynasty (319–540 CE), marked a peak in the history of Indian Buddhist art. All these artistic achievements remain brilliant treasures of Indian history and art. Another development during the Ashoka period was the spread of Buddhism beyond India. It was first introduced to Sri Lanka, where large stupas were surrounded by rows of pillars adorned with beautiful capitals, and later, the famous Lion Rock Sigiriya murals emerged. Buddhism spread westward along the Silk Road to the Gandhara region. This was an ancient crossroads for land transportation between Asia and Europe, where Eastern and Western cultures converged. Early on, it was occupied by Alexander the Great of Macedon, who established some Hellenistic cities. Later, it was unified under the Mauryan Empire of India. When Buddhism arrived here, many local Greeks converted to Buddhism, building stupas and monasteries and enshrining relics. In the mid-1st century CE, the Yuezhi people from China established the Kushan Empire here. The third king of the empire, Kanishka, modeled himself after Ashoka in his reverence for Buddhism, promoting the Dharma throughout the empire, holding assemblies, and flourishing Mahayana Buddhism. The construction of stupas and monasteries, as well as the popularity of Buddhist stone carvings, reached its peak. The Kushan Empire created the renowned "Gandharan art" in Buddhist art history. Another achievement of Gandharan art was the creation of the image of the Buddha. The Buddhism of the Kushan period was predominantly Mahayana, inheriting the vibrant cultural and artistic traditions of the Mauryan Empire and further enriching them. "Due to the influence of Greek and Roman liberal thought, which had a long tradition of creating various deities, Eastern religion and Western sculpture had long been deeply integrated here." As a result, the image of the Buddha first appeared in the Gandhara region. The worship of Buddha statues gradually replaced stupas, becoming the main object of veneration. The creation of Buddha images marked the completion of the main themes of Buddhist art. During this period and the following centuries, Buddhism and its art spread north, west, and east along the Silk Road. In Central Asia, in addition to the regions mentioned above, Buddhism flourished in areas extending from the Amu Darya south to the Syr Darya north, including present-day Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, and Kyrgyzstan, and was revered and supported by local rulers. Buddhism thrived in this region, and people in these areas used white clay and other materials to sculpt Buddha statues and architectural decorations. The people, scholars, and artists of these regions, based on their own existing thoughts, religions, cultures, arts, customs, and natural conditions, studied, understood, and adapted to these foreign elements, integrating them with their traditional culture to produce the "Amu Darya school of art." Buddhism was introduced to China around the 1st century BCE, and Buddhist art flourished accordingly. It first appeared in the Xinjiang region. The people of these areas built stupas with rammed earth and stone blocks, constructed "timber-frame mud walls" in -shaped halls, and developed the central from India into a locally distinctive "Kucha-style" form. They sculpted Buddha and Bodhisattva statues with mud and plaster, advancing the art of clay sculpture. They combined the linear techniques of Chinese Central Plains painting with India's concave-convex and shaded techniques, giving rise to the "Xiyu school" of painting, including the "Kucha," "Kucha," and "Gaochang" styles. When Buddhist art entered the Central Plains of China, it merged with China's indigenous painting art, giving rise to Central Plains-style Buddhist art, such as the Dunhuang art, which emphasized lines and color, and the Yungang Grottoes art, which was thick, pure, and simple. Similarly, Buddhist art in various regions of the Central Plains also reflected the characteristics of their local areas, shining with diversity within unity. Buddhism then spread to the far East and Southeast Asia, including Korea and Japan, where it flourished and developed unique characteristics. To this day, there are still many devout believers in these regions. Buddhist art is a comprehensive art form, including architectural elements such as stupas and monasteries, as well as sculptural, painted, and decorative motifs. Additionally, there are ritual instruments and offerings. As mentioned earlier, Buddhism and its art originated in India. As Buddhism spread outward, Buddhist art flourished across Asia, adapting to local natural conditions and integrating with the indigenous cultural arts of each region. It absorbed the influences of India and its developments during the process of transmission, forming its own unique development paths and characteristics. This made Buddhist art even more diverse and colorful, becoming an art form with a rich variety of expressions, embodying national and regional traits. Some of these creations even evolved into traditional arts of their own peoples. At the same time, they also reflected the level of their respective cultural arts. Therefore, exploring the developments and changes in Buddhist art is of great significance for the study of history, religion, and cultural arts in Central Asia and China, especially Xinjiang. In summary, these Buddhist structures and artworks shone brilliantly along the ancient Silk Road, showcasing the styles of ancient Eastern peoples. Their connotations and meanings are profound. This book provides only a brief introduction to Buddhist art in India and along the Silk Road. More than two thousand years ago, Buddhist monks traveled tirelessly, spreading Buddhist thoughts and teachings along the Silk Road, and with them, Buddhist art—architecture, sculpture, painting—developed in these places. Magnificent stupas and monasteries, solemn Buddha statues, and colorful murals—these exquisite artworks, like pearls, were strung together by the Silk Road, becoming an immortal cultural heritage of humanity. The Silk Road was not just a trade route but also a path for the spread of Buddhism and its art, and a cultural route that connected the economies and cultures of the East and West, integrating and promoting the development of their respective traditional cultures. Through these Buddhist artworks, we can understand and appreciate the Buddhist architecture and art along the Silk Road and their relationship with the local social and cultural development. These immortal cultural heritage of humanity are waiting for us to actively explore, study, develop, and utilize them for the benefit of humanity.