History of Ancient Chinese Literature.

Author: Guo Yingde
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Publishing Date: 2003-08-01
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The Significance of Myths in Literary History
Mythical thinking is closely linked to the cognitive abilities of primitive peoples. In the eyes of primitive peoples, natural phenomena were as alive as themselves, possessing vibrant souls, wills, and emotions, capable of mysterious interactions with humans. There existed a mutual permeation between humans and the external natural world. Myths were born from this perception of the world.
First, since primitive peoples had not yet distinctly separated themselves from nature, they often unconsciously projected their own attributes onto nature when perceiving it, forming a mythological thinking characteristic of viewing and perceiving the world through their own lens. For example, the famous myth of Pangu's creation of the world is based on the analogy of human body parts to infer the various phenomena in the universe. Another example is from Shanhaijing·Overseas North Circuit: "The god of Zhong Mountain is named Zhuyin. His gaze is day, his closing of eyes is night. His blowing is winter, his sighing is summer. He drinks nothing, eats nothing, and does not breathe. His breathing is wind. His body spans a thousand li, located to the east of the uninhabited region. His form is that of a human face with a snake's body, red in color, and he dwells beneath Zhong Mountain. This myth explains the formation of day and night, the seasons, and wind in terms of human physiological actions. Viewing the world through one's own lens can also extend from the human body to human temperament, behavior, and familiar environments. For instance, to explain why many star systems tend to shift northwest and why China's geographical features are higher in the west and lower in the east, a myth states: 'In ancient times, Gonggong and Zhuanxu competed for the throne. In anger, he struck the mountain of Buzhou, causing the pillar of heaven to break, the of the earth to snap, the sky to tilt to the northwest, so the sun, moon, and stars shifted accordingly. The earth was not level in the southeast, so water and dust gathered there.' (From Huainanzi·Tianwen). Nearly all myths permeate this way of viewing the world through oneself, as primitive peoples understood the external mysterious world through their own life forms.
Second, mythical thinking is concrete and figurative. Since the abstract thinking abilities of primitive peoples were still in their early stages of development, their thinking could not yet detach from tangible and perceivable images. For example, primitive peoples used the changing positions of the sun in space to grasp time, leading to myths like "The sun rises in Yanggu and people enter Youyuan" (see Huainanzi·Shuolin). The passage of time was explained in myths as concrete and perceivable plots. In myths, space was not purely a geometric orientation but was linked to certain specific emotional experiences. For instance, the east was represented as the spring god Junmang, spring, green, and wood, while the north was associated with the winter god Zhuanxu, winter, darkness, black, and water. However, myths also contain synthesis and generalization of things, but mythical synthesis still relies on concrete images. For example, the dragon's origin was merely a totemic symbol of a snake-worshipping tribe, "accepting the four legs of beasts, the hair of horses, the tail of tigers, the hooves of deer, the claws of dogs, the scales and whiskers of fish," eventually forming this majestic mythical image. Clearly, the dragon as a mythical image was not a pure product of imagination but rather a recombination of specific images.
Third, mythical thinking is accompanied by intense emotional experiences. The mysterious and unpredictable nature of the great outdoors evoked fear, awe, or surprise in the hearts of primitive peoples, who then attributed these emotions to the inherent qualities of external objects. Thus, what primitive peoples encountered was a world imbued with language and emotion. Myths, in turn, tell stories of human interactions with the world. Additionally, the dissemination and retelling of myths were also filled with emotional experiences. For example, in Shanhaijing, whenever the images of dragons and phoenixes appear, they are accompanied by songs, dances, and music, reflecting a sense of harmony and joy; another example is the love between gods and humans in the Nine Songs of the Chu Ci, which stems from people's emotional yearning for mythical figures. However, as society developed, the emotions contained in myths became difficult for modern people to understand.
From the above characteristics, it can be seen that mythical thinking is a symbolic and metaphorical form of thought. Symbolism and metaphor refer to the connection between concrete images and specific meanings. As culture developed, people often used specific images to represent certain characteristics or concepts when tracing history, summarizing experiences, and communicating ideas and emotions. For example, gourds and eggs were regarded as symbols of maternal and reproductive in primitive cultures; another example is the dragon, which was not only a tribal symbol but also contained specific national spirit and deep national sentiments, becoming a symbol of national cohesion. This system of symbolism and metaphor defined and maintained the relationships between people and nature, as well as among individuals within the collective. It allowed every member to experience a shared collective consciousness and collective emotion. Primitive myths, through these different types of symbolic and metaphorical imagery, constructed the cultural community of primitive peoples.
Myths were the cognitive and expressive methods of primitive peoples, not conscious literary creations. Yet, myths occupied a very important position in the literary treasury. Chinese myths, with their profound and profound meanings and vivid and lively expressions, laid the foundation for later literature. The influence of myths on literature is primarily manifested in two aspects: first, as material for literary creation; and second, as archetypes that directly influence the thinking methods, expressive techniques, and aesthetic effects of literary creation. In addition to being recorded by later generations, myths also provided material for various literary works. Myths entered poetry, such as the direct description of the miraculous deeds of Houji in Shijing·Daya·Shengmin, and the various deities in the Chuci. Later poets, especially romantic ones, loved to incorporate myths into their poetry. For example, Li Shangyin's poem "Yaochi" reads: "The mother of Yaochi opens her embroidered window, / The song of Huangzhu moves the earth with sorrow, / The eight steeds travel thirty thousand li each day, / Why does the King of Mu not return?" This is a masterful use of mythical imagery. Myths entered prose, with the most representative being Zhuangzi. Zhuangzi is renowned for its "ideas transcending the mundane, wonders born from the pen" and "ethereal and fantastical transformations" (Liu Xizai, Yigai·Wengai), largely due to the influence of myths. For example, the transformation of Kun and Peng in "Free and Easy Wandering," and the breaking of the chaos in "Responding to the Emperor," both add a romantic and fantastical touch to the entire work. As for Cao Zhi's famous "Luo Shen Fu," which uses the image of the goddess of Luo River, Fufei, for inspiration, it is also a successful creation that utilizes mythical material. More works of fiction and drama also drew on myths as material, primarily leveraging the extraordinary imagination of myths and re-creating mythical figures or plots. For example, the Tang legend "Liu Yi's Biography," the Qing novels "Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio," "Flowers and Mirrors," "The Investiture of the Gods," and "Dream of the Red Chamber," as well as the dramas "Peony Pavilion" and "Romance of the West Chamber," all contain mythical plots. The Qing and Ming mythological and demonic novels reached the peak of adopting and reshaping myths, with the most representative being "Journey to the West." Sun Wukong, Zhu Bajie, and their ability to ride clouds and change forms became the most influential mythical images in Chinese literature. It is not difficult to see the influence of figures like Xia Qiji, Chiyou with a "copper head and iron face," Xingtian who challenged the emperor, and the water demon Wuzhijii on Sun Wukong's character. It can be said that ancient myths, as material, permeated every corner of classical Chinese literature. Through the exploration and transformation by literary masters, they re-emerged with brilliance in new works, giving literary works a unique artistic charm.
The symbolism and emotionality of mythical thinking are also key factors in literature. Literary creation is essentially the objectification and materialization of subjective thoughts and emotions. Therefore, "for many writers, myths are a common factor between poetry and religion," and "the meaning and function of literature mainly manifest in metaphor and myth." Mythical archetypes provide a rich source of symbolic inspiration imbued with deep emotions. As the concentrated expression of the ideology of primitive ancestors, myths embody the ancestors' thoughts and feelings about themselves and the external world. Mythical images are rich in emotional elements, accumulating in history. Works that consciously or unconsciously utilize mythical archetypes can take the author or reader into the profound emotional experiences of primitive peoples, thereby alleviating the pressure of reality and transcending ordinary worldly concerns. As Jung said, "A person who speaks with primal images is speaking with the voices of millions. He transforms our personal fate into the fate of humanity, awakening within us all those compassionate forces that ensure humanity can always escape danger and traverse the long night."
When Qu Yuan (c. 339–278 BCE) faced repeated setbacks in the real world, he turned to ancient myths: the dragon and phoenix riding together, wandering the heavens, and searching for women. The mythical world allowed him to transcend the real world, expressing his inner frustrations and vacillations. At the same time, the frequent use of fragrant herbs and beautiful women in Li Sao became a stable mythical archetype due to its mythical background and Qu Yuan's creative refinement, serving as a model for generations of writers, such as Cao Zhi's "Luo Shen Fu" and Li He's "Su Xiaoxiao's Tomb." Meanwhile, Pu Songling's (1640–1715) "Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio" not only used myths as material but also as a spiritual refuge, expressing his rejection of the unfair real world and his yearning for the emotions and world of myths. It can be said that the works of Qu Yuan, Pu Songling, and others embodied the essence and measure of mythical archetypes.
Comparatively, the emotions and symbolism of myths are rooted in collective consciousness and carry a stronger sense of the mystical, while the symbolism and emotional expression in literary creation are more subjective and individualistic. The creator uses the emotional power of mythical archetypes to express personal sentiments.