Russian Social History - Personality. Democratic Family. Civil Society and the Formation of a Rule-of-Law State (Imperial Russia: 18th Century to Early 20th Century) (Volume 1 and 2)

Author: Boris Nikolaevich Mirонов (Russia)
Publisher:
Publish Date: 2006-01-01
Features: Before the 1861 Emancipation Reform, Orthodox peasants typically spent their childhood and youth in compound patriarchal families. These families included two or three generations of direct descendants, such as grandparents and their children or fathers and their children. This type of family was not only a kinship organization but, more importantly, an economic organization based on gendered division of labor. The male elder—great-grandfather, grandfather, or father—was the leader and ruler of the family. In addition to his wife's share, the rest of the family property was communal and managed by the head of the household. Compound families were regarded by scholars studying peasant life as a model where the interests of the family and individuals were upheld, characterized by order, peace, and prosperity. But was this really the case? The compound patriarchal family was a small autocratic kingdom. The father or grandfather, as the most experienced and eldest man in the family, exercised patriarchal management in the home, akin to the 17th-century Russian Tsar, based on the belief in legitimacy and the sanctity of paternal authority. He was responsible for allocating the labor of family members, supervising their work, resolving internal conflicts, punishing those who erred, upholding morality, entering into contracts, shopping, and paying taxes. He oversaw family rituals and was accountable for the behavior of family members to the village, the landlord (in the name of the lord), and local authorities, representing the family's interests at all times. His authority to supervise contracts signed by family members further strengthened his power. He had the right to punish children or brothers who defied his will. The situation of family members was sometimes difficult under the pressure of the head of the household. Peasant life followed customs that prohibited children from separating from their fathers or requesting division of the family property. Division was only allowed if the father or grandfather squandered property, drank excessively, or caused serious harm to the family's interests. In such cases, property could only be divided among the children or relatives who were about to become independent under the approval and supervision of the village community. Hierarchy was the foundation of family relationships. The entire family was expected to obey the head of the household, women were to obey the grandmother (the wife of the head of the household) and men, the young were to obey the elderly, and children were to obey adults. Women held a low status, had no voting rights, and were completely subservient to their grandfathers and husbands. Due to the immense power of the father (or grandfather), until the early 20th century, the father-in-law still had the right to take possession of his daughter-in-law. The relationship between a wife and husband was like that between a subject and a monarch, or a serf and a landlord. Regarding the status of women in the 16th–17th centuries, H.H. Kostomarov wrote, "Russian women had never been free in their lives." Men could sell their wives as they sold their children. This situation persisted until the eve of the Emancipation Reform. The renowned ethnographer H.C. Efimenko described women in Arkhangelsk in 1860 as being in a "difficult and humbled position." However, compared to other regions, women's family status here was relatively high. Usually, although the grandmother was also expected to obey her husband absolutely, her status was higher than that of other women because she managed them. If the husband died and there were no adult males in the family, the grandmother would take over the power of the head of the household. She became the ruler of the family. Generally, she controlled the family property, the labor of all family members, and their personal lives until the children grew up, got married, and had children. However, according to the peasants' view, the grandmother was not much better than a horse. The ethnographer and nobleman H.H. Nebol'sin wrote, "Wives are not horses; they should be treated as human beings." Before the abolition of serfdom, women not only worked before giving birth but also had to work again three days after giving birth. "Lords, how can you treat her like a horse? They are completely different! Only when a woman falls down does she attract attention. Just like when a horse falls ill, the whole family goes hungry—this is how it is." Twenty-nine years later, the ethnographer H.A. Ivanitsky wrote, "Women seem to be despised in folk culture due to their natural stupidity. They are treated like cold-blooded animals. The soul of a woman is not recognized. Peasants do not regard women as human beings, do not recognize their souls, and the treatment they receive is no better than that of cows and horses. It is considered natural for women to be beaten."