History of Chinese Calligraphy: Yuan and Ming Dynasties

Author: Huang Dun
Publisher:
Publishing Date: 2005-08-01
Features: In the early 13th century, the Mongol nobles, led by Genghis Khan, rose to prominence with their prowess on horseback, unifying the various Mongol tribes and establishing the Mongol Empire. Within decades, they conquered the Western Xia, expanded northwestward, conquering Russia, Central Asia, and West Asia, and then invaded the area within the Great Wall. In 1234, Genghis Khan's son ?gedei, in alliance with the Southern Song Dynasty, conquered the Jin Dynasty, occupying the Central Plains along the Yellow River, and began advancing southward with a massive army. In the seventh year of Emperor Gaozong's Xianchun (1271), Kublai Khan (the founder of the Yuan Dynasty), grandson of Genghis Khan, adopted the name "Da Yuan" from the I Ching to signify the beginning of a new era. The following year, he established the capital at Dadu (modern-day Beijing). In the 16th year of the Yuan era (1279), he conquered the Southern Song Dynasty, unifying China and ending the three centuries of coexistence among various regimes within the country. The Yuan Dynasty expanded its territory, surpassing the vastness of the Tang and Song dynasties. The relentless warfare caused immense suffering among the people, but the subsequent unification of the north and south facilitated cultural exchange among different ethnic groups, enriching the cultural treasury of the nation. With improved communication, the exchange and spread of science and culture between the East and West also advanced. The Mongols chose Beijing as their capital and centered their empire around China, recognizing the advanced Han culture and the feudal economic strength of the Han people. "The barbaric conquerors are always conquered by the higher civilization of the people they conquer." In the course of the wars, the Mongol nobles gradually shed the outdated pastoralist mindset. After unifying China, Kublai Khan paid greater attention to traditional Confucian thought and adopted the principle of "governing through culture" as the foundation of his state. He accepted the suggestions of Khitan scholar Yelü Chucai and Han scholars Liu Bingzhong, Yao Shu, and Xu Heng, promoting "Han law" and establishing institutions that largely followed the models of the Tang and Song dynasties. In the early Yuan Dynasty, despite the widespread interaction among ethnic groups due to warfare, the Mongol nobles implemented discriminatory policies, classifying people into four tiers: Mongols as the first class, Semu people (referring to Westerners) as the second, Han people (including Jurchens and northern Han people under the former Jin rule, as well as Khitan people) as the third, and Nan people (referring to the Southern Song people south of the Huai River) as the fourth. As a result, Han people and Han scholars held a lowly status, and their minds were filled with suffering. Although the Yuan Dynasty's Renzong Emperor adopted the Han Confucian scholars' suggestion in the second year of the Yanyou era (1315) to reopen the imperial examination system, the number of scholars who entered the civil service through this route remained small. The central and local governments were primarily controlled by Mongol nobles, and Han officials were merely appendages. To win over Han intellectuals, Kublai Khan once sent Cheng Jufu to Jiangnan to seek talented scholars, recruiting 24 Confucian scholars, with Zhao Mengfu being the most highly regarded. After Zhao Mengfu came forward, he played a significant role in the development of Yuan Dynasty calligraphy and painting. Although the Yuan Dynasty implemented ethnic discriminatory policies, it did not impose strict ideological control, allowing for greater freedom of thought. The unequal treatment in politics left Han scholars with no hope of entering the civil service, leading many to turn to literature and art. This spurred significant progress in quyi (a form of narrative song), zaju (a type of traditional Chinese opera), calligraphy, and painting during the Yuan Dynasty. Yuan quyi, which evolved from Song Ci, and zaju, which developed on the foundation of earlier forms, became an important aspect of literature during the Yuan Dynasty, holding a prominent position. Many works reflected the suffering of the people and the contradictions of society, exhibiting a realistic. This was largely the result of some intellectuals, facing no hope in the civil service, establishing extensive connections with folk artists and the lower classes. While inevitably influenced by the ideology of the ruling class, works that criticized social darkness and celebrated pure love, to varying degrees, demonstrated a tendency to break free from feudal thought constraints and embodied bold creative spirit. In painting, Yuan Dynasty artists of high status, such as Zhao Mengfu and Li Kan, were relatively few. As a result, literati painters who refused to enter the civil service or were unsuccessful in their careers took Tao Yuanming as their ideal figure and lived a secluded life in the city. They expressed their sentiments through landscape paintings or by depicting plum blossoms, orchids, bamboo, and chrysanthemums, conveying their patriotic feelings and noble character. This led to the development of literati painting, dominated by expressive landscape paintings that emphasized subjective emotion. In fact, even Zhao Mengfu, a literati artist who lived a life of suffering, primarily focused on themes like these, aligning him ideologically with the reclusive painters. The four great landscape painters of the late Yuan Dynasty—Huang Gongwang, Wu Zhen, Ni Yunlin, and Wang Meng—all drew influence from him. The development of calligraphy in the Yuan Dynasty was affected by the discrimination against Han scholars by the ruling Mongols, just as with other arts. However, due to the practical nature of calligraphy as a vehicle for writing, it could not be ignored by any ruler in China. Although Kublai Khan was not skilled in calligraphy, he ordered his heir apparent, Prince Yu Zong, to study calligraphy with designated renowned scholars, and the large calligraphy pieces he copied were preserved at Dongguan. Later, Emperors Yingzong, Wenzong, and Tianshun continued to study calligraphy. Wenzong's calligraphy was influenced by Zhao Mengfu and followed the style of the Jin Dynasty, while Tianshun's son, Aiyourdala, studied calligraphy under Yu Shennan. Notably, Emperor Wenzong established the Kui Zhangge in the second year of the Tianli era, following the old system of the "Hall of Jade," and had the scholar Yu Jie compose the "Record of the Kui Zhangge," which collected famous calligraphy and paintings as imperial treasures. Emperor Wenzong also appointed Ke Jiushi as the calligraphy scholar-in-residence at the Kui Zhangge and gathered a group of important calligraphers, such as Yu Jie, Jie Qis, and Kang Li Wanshi, at the Kui Zhangge. The Yuan Dynasty, ruled by Mongol nobles, witnessed such a grand event in the history of calligraphy, which could not be overlooked. Unfortunately, the Kui Zhangge was short-lived, lasting only five years, after which Ke Jiushi was dismissed from the court due to power struggles among officials and internal conflicts within the imperial family. The most prominent factor in the development of Yuan Dynasty calligraphy, objectively speaking, was not the support of emperors to a certain extent but rather the special status of scholars in the Yuan Dynasty. In the early Yuan Dynasty, ethnic minority calligraphers, such as Yelü Chucai of the Liao royal family (1190–1244), were skilled in calligraphy but did not have a significant impact on the calligraphy scene. The most important factor was still the unique status of Zhao Mengfu, who led the trend. With his exquisite calligraphy and painting, Zhao Mengfu won the favor of Kublai Khan and the praise of the court and the people, achieving glory across five dynasties and holding the rank of first rank official, making him the admiration of most calligraphers in the Yuan Dynasty. Due to his admiration for the calligraphy of Wang Xizhi and Wang Xianzhi, Zhao Mengfu promoted the restoration of ancient styles, greatly influencing the formation of a large group of calligraphers following the Zhao style. Although holding a high position, Zhao Mengfu always harbored a desire for seclusion, as mentioned earlier. His landscape paintings, which initiated the style of the "Four Great Landscape Painters of the Yuan Dynasty," shared artistic ideals with reclusive painters. Therefore, this suppressed spiritual trauma inevitably reflected in his calligraphy. Calligraphy differed from painting in its direct expression of form and from his own poetry, which could express inner suffering, as calligraphy reflected such emotions more subtly. Under Mongol rule, Zhao Mengfu's emphasis on ancient methods could not be seen as a form of national consciousness to restore tradition. His deliberate tracing of the Jin Dynasty and the pursuit of the elegance of the Jin people also reflected a desire for transcendence. His calligraphy, characterized by its elegance and refinement, set a new trend with its fresh, unconventional, and ethereal style, advancing the development of literati calligraphy that had declined in the late Southern Song Dynasty. The scholarly air in his calligraphy later became a model for calligraphy for nearly 500 years. Thus, Yuan Dynasty calligraphy, dominated by Zhao Mengfu's style, lacked the boldness of the Tang and the elegance of the Northern Song, constrained by the social conditions of the time. In addition to Zhao Mengfu's lineage, there was another line of calligraphers—recluses. Although many of these authors were influenced by Zhao Mengfu or shared similar aesthetic inclinations due to their social status, the few recluse calligraphers had distinct styles, revealing their individuality. They, though living comfortably, could not serve the state and were filled with a sense of frustration, leading them to express their emotions through calligraphy. As a result, they revealed more of their personalities compared to Zhao Mengfu's lineage, such as Wu Zhen, Yang Weizheng, Ni Zan, and Lu Juren. Although this line was far less influential than Zhao Mengfu's, it could not be ignored in the history of calligraphy. The Yuan emperors, to consolidate their rule, vigorously promoted religion, treating all religious sects with equal respect. Buddhism, Daoism, Islam, Christianity, and Judaism all spread during this time. Among these, Buddhism and Daoism, having played important roles in the Mongol unification of the world, were particularly strong and influential. The number of Buddhist temples and Daoist temples reached unprecedented levels. At the same time, the Yuan emperors adopted the Han Confucian scholars' advocacy of Neo-Confucianism from the Song Dynasty, promoting the feudal moral concepts of the Three Cardinal Principles and Five Constant Virtues. All of these were reflected in Yuan Dynasty literature, drama, and painting. Yuan calligraphers left behind many copies of Buddhist and Daoist scriptures, a result of the influence of religion. At the same time, the popularity of Buddhism and Daoism gave rise to a number of Buddhist and Daoist calligraphers. For example, Zhongfeng Mingben (1263–1323), a native of Qiantang, with the secular surname Sun, was an intelligent and perceptive monk, a disciple of Peak High Monk Miao. He was also the Buddhist teacher of Zhao Mengfu and his wife. Later, he resided in Tiantai Mountain in Zhejiang and was summoned by Emperor Renzong but declined, receiving the posthumous title of "Puying National Teacher." Although he initially learned calligraphy from Wang Xizhi, his brushwork was sharp and pointed, resembling "willow leaves." His works were widelyed in Japan. Another example is Yishan Yining (1247–1317), with the secular surname Hu, from Taizhou, Zhejiang. A renowned monk from Nanhai Putuo, he was sent by Emperor Chengzong of the Yuan Dynasty to Japan in 1299 as an envoy carrying an imperial edict. After staying in Japan, he resided in Kennō-ji in and Nanzen-ji in Kyoto. After his death, the Japanese posthumously honored him as "Yishan National Teacher," and the Buddhist school he founded is known as the "Yishan School." His cursive calligraphy was highly regarded in Japan, with such renowned calligraphers as Xucong Youmei and Huanguan Shilian being his disciples. His cursive calligraphy, influenced by Yan Zhenqing and Huai Su, was, with a vibrant energy. His works, such as "Snow Night," "The Hymn of the Sixth Patriarch," and "Dharma Talks," were revered as national treasures in Japan. Another example is Xu'an Puguang, with the secular surname Li, styled Xuanhui, and styled Xu'an. A native of Datong, he was a renowned monk in the Yuan Dynasty. A versatile scholar, he excelled in both internal and external studies, and his calligraphy and painting reached the pinnacle of art. His calligraphy, influenced by Yan Zhenqing and Liu Gongquan, was skilled in regular script, running script, and cursive script, particularly excelling in large-character calligraphy. "All imperial inscriptions and tablets during our dynasty were written by him." His large-character calligraphy also influenced Goryeo. In addition, other Zen monks such as Gulin Qingmao (1262–1329), Mingji Chu (1262–1336), Qingjue Zhengcheng (1274–1339), Yuanou Xingduan, Zu Ying, Yuejiang Zhengyin, Longyan Shangren, Chushi Fanqi, and Liaonan Qingchu all had distinctive calligraphic styles, reflecting the unique, aloof, and transcendent spirit of Buddhist calligraphers. Since Buddhist and Daoist calligraphers were not the mainstream of Yuan Dynasty calligraphy, further discussion is not necessary here. Due to the Yuan Dynasty being ruled by ethnic minorities, some Han-educated high-ranking intellectuals emerged among the ethnic minorities. Most of them had lived in the Central Plains for a long time and were influenced by Han literati. Some of them were even high-ranking officials in the court, such as Kang Li Wanshi and Zhou Boqi, who were outstanding calligraphers in the Yuan Dynasty and had a significant impact on later calligraphy. These ethnic minority calligraphers made positive contributions to the exchange of cultural arts among different ethnic groups. The development of Yuan Dynasty calligraphy was determined by its specific social background and the special status of scholars, which could not be ignored when understanding Yuan Dynasty calligraphy.
II. The Phenomenon of Revival in Yuan Dynasty Calligraphy
Yuan Dynasty calligraphy can be roughly divided into three periods. The early period includes the early Mongol Dynasty up to the Dade era, referring to the reign of Kublai Khan. Before the Mongols unified China, continuous warfare led to a decline in calligraphy, so the early period essentially refers to the approximately 20 years after Kublai Khan conquered the Southern Song Dynasty (1279–1294). In the early Yuan Dynasty, Zhao Mengfu, Xian Yu, and Deng Wenyuan can be considered representative calligraphers of this period. The middle period refers to the Dade era of Emperor Chengzong to the Tianli and Zhishun eras of Emperor Wenzong (1295–1331), during which Yuan Dynasty calligraphy developed to a greater extent. This period not only saw the popularity of Zhao Mengfu's calligraphic style throughout the court but also the active involvement of his disciples, such as Yu Jie, Zhang Yu, Ke Jiushi, and Zhu Derun, in Jiangnan and Dadu. Moreover, Emperor Wenzong's passion for calligraphy and painting and the establishment of the Kui Zhangge brought together a group of talented calligraphers and painters in Yuan. The late period refers to the Zhishun era of Emperor Tianshun to the end of the Yuan Dynasty (1333–1368), during which Kang Li Wanshi and Zhou Boqi became the most important calligraphers in the emperor's court. In addition, the calligraphy of recluses also emerged prominently during the chaotic times. Overall, over 88 years, influenced by Zhao Mengfu, Yuan Dynasty calligraphy exhibited a comprehensive trend of revival. Looking back in history, Northern Song calligraphy, under the guidance of the "Four Masters of the Song," showed a strong feature of literati calligraphy with a focus on expression. After the Southern Song moved south, this expressive feature of literati calligraphy did not receive further development, and the trend of imitating contemporary calligraphers rose. The influence of Su Shi, Huang Tingjian, and Mi Fu was particularly prominent, not only in the northern regions but also in the southern regions. Emperor Gaozong of the Southern Song clearly recognized this trend in his Record of Calligraphy and Painting (): "Since the beginning of our dynasty to the present day, scholars have been scarce in achieving fame in calligraphy and painting. Even if there are a few, they are only one or two, and it is truly not comparable to the Tang Dynasty." His own calligraphic practice began by learning from Huang and then from Mi, realizing the need to trace back to the origins of the Wei and Jin dynasties, so he followed Wang Xizhi and Wang Xianzhi in his calligraphy, saying: "Since the Wei and Jin dynasties to the Six Dynasties, I have not failed to copy all styles, and the essence remains in my. As for the Xijie, I have measured it more deeply and imitated it more strictly. The posture is full of life, and I cannot find its origin. I have carefully observed the brushwork and painting until I have memorized it, without leaving any doubt in my heart. Unfortunately, the Southern Song Dynasty was limited by the times, and Emperor Gaozong's idea of reviving the Wei and Jin dynasties to transform calligraphy and painting through the study of the past was not fully realized." The emergence of Zhao Mengfu in the early Yuan Dynasty brought a significant turning point in the calligraphic style of the Yuan Dynasty. Before Zhao Mengfu, northern calligraphers mostly followed Yan Zhenqing, and many also learned from Su Shi and Mi Fu. However, with the popularity of Zhao Mengfu's calligraphic style, a trend of reviving the Wei and Jin dynasties swept across the court, even Xian Yu, who entered the Yuan Dynasty from the Jin, strongly advocated returning to the Wei and Jin dynasties and was influenced by Zhao Mengfu himself. The classical calligraphic style, promoted by Zhao Mengfu, dominated the Yuan Dynasty and continued into the mid-Ming Dynasty. We regard this turning point in the history of calligraphy as an important transformation. Zhao Mengfu's calligraphic philosophy originated from Emperor Gaozong of the Song Dynasty. Before entering the Yuan Dynasty, he began by studying Emperor Gaozong's calligraphy. First, he was a descendant of the Song imperial family, considered the legitimate heir. Second, Zhao Mengfu's calligraphic philosophy was deeply influenced by Emperor Gaozong, although he concealed this for political reasons after entering the Yuan Dynasty. However, once the opportunity arose, he openly expressed his views and revealed his determination to inherit Emperor Gaozong's legacy. Zhao Mengfu said: "Stone is like flying white, wood is like Zhu, writing bamboo is also in line with the eight methods; if there is someone who can understand this, they must know that calligraphy and painting are originally the same." This view can be seen as a representative of the time when painters consciously integrated calligraphic brushwork into painting. Ke Jiushi was skilled in writing bamboo and rocks. He even believed that "writing the stalks with seal script, the branches with cursive script, the leaves with eight-character script, or with the brushwork of Yan Zhenqing; wood and rocks use the legacy of 'broken hairpin' and 'leakage from the roof.'" As a result, when viewing Ke Jiushi's Bamboo and Wood Painting, people wrote: "I absolutely love the calligraphy of Ke Jiushi, who can write sparse bamboo with the eight methods. Upon closer inspection, the ancient trees and vines are even more filled with the true calligraphy of Zhang." The Yuan people's understanding of painting through calligraphic brushwork was influenced by their emphasis on reviving ancient methods, as well as enriching the brushwork techniques of literati painting since the Northern Song Dynasty. Conversely, the development of literati painting in the Yuan Dynasty greatly promoted the desire of literati to study calligraphy, thus becoming a driving force for the development of calligraphy itself. At that time, painters and calligraphers strongly advocated integrating calligraphy into painting, believing that "scholarly gentlemen who excel in painting must also excel in calligraphy, and their painting techniques are where calligraphy lies." The inscriptions on paintings and the trend of integrating calligraphy into painting combined to closely integrate Yuan Dynasty calligraphy and literati painting, having a positive impact on later calligraphy.