A Brief Discussion on the History of Chinese Scholarship

Author: Guan Changlong
Publisher:
Publishing Date: 2004-06-01
Features: II. The Rational Model of Confucian and Daoist Enlightenment—"De"
Confucius once said, "He who does not know his destiny cannot be a true gentleman." Here, the destiny referred to is not the vulgar fate of later folk beliefs, but rather the life journey that a natural product will fulfill within the vastness of nature. It is a self-determined destiny that requires integrating the relationships of all things on a metaphysical level through sincerity to be rationally established. This necessitates establishing a mode of enlightenment that allows a natural individual to rationally comprehend and grasp the principles of heaven, earth, and all things—"De," because "Without supreme virtue, the supreme Way cannot coalesce." Confucius primarily used the Book of Changes to "seek the principles and fulfill the nature" and "revere virtue and expand enterprises," thereby transcending the role of shamans and diviners, and establishing an academic system of moral cognition capable of "understanding the divine and perceiving transformations" and "applying one principle consistently." As he himself said, "The Book of Changes surpasses the rituals of divination and augury; I observe its virtue and meaning. Through intuitive insight, I penetrate the hidden, and through rational understanding, I grasp the principles." The intention is to enter into rational cognition through "intuitive insight" and then use this rational understanding to return to the source and innovate, achieving moral and professional fulfillment both outwardly and inwardly. This is an individual mode of enlightenment that integrates the rational "numerical" understanding of the external world (i.e., a logical approach to the "Way") with the "insight" of the internal world (i.e., an intuitive recognition of the "Way"). The Upper Commentary states: "The Master said, 'The Book of Changes opens things and accomplishes tasks, encompassing the principles of the world, just as this.' Therefore, the sage uses it to communicate the aspirations of all under heaven, to establish the enterprises of all under heaven, and to resolve the doubts of all under heaven. Thus, the virtue of the Yi is round and divine, while the virtue of the hexagrams is square and knowing. The meaning of the six lines is easy to contribute. The sage uses it to purify the heart, to withdraw and conceal in secrecy, sharing joy and sorrow with the people. The divine knows the coming, and the knowing hides the past. Who can match this? The ancient wise and sagacious, the divine and martial yet un-slaying! Thus, they understand the Way of heaven and observe the reasons of the people, promoting divine artifacts to lead the people. The sage uses this to fast and purify, to manifest his divine virtue!" According to the Upper Commentary of the Book of Changes, the eight trigrams originated from the (looking up and looking down) of Pao Xi (also known as Fuxi). He invented the trigrams to "communicate the virtue of the divine" and "classify the emotions of all things." By the middle ancient period, at the end of the Yin Dynasty and the beginning of the Zhou Dynasty, the sage (later attributed to King Wen) "combined the three natures and divided them into two," using the principles of yin and yang to communicate the virtue of the trigrams, thus evolving the system of sixty-four hexagrams for divination with Yi stalks. This also perfected the operational mechanism of the trigram system that encompasses "heavenly Way, earthly Way, and human Way." The Upper Commentary of the Book of Changes records Confucius saying, "He who knows the Way of change knows the divine as it acts!" In fact, this understanding has a strange consistency with that of ancient Greek scholars. For example, Socrates believed that "learning mathematics is for the soul itself," Pythagoras believed that "numbers rule the universe," and Plato believed that "God is a geometer." This shows that it is an inevitable product of the development of rational cognition, and the Book of Changes further materializes this "numerical" understanding into an operational system, which is even recognized in modern science. Confucius logically interpreted the "numerical" principles of the Yi from the perspective of rational cognition, making it a "virtue and enterprise" that the new humanity after awakening to reason could recognize (encompassing the principles of heaven and humanity). Then, what is the internal model of this "virtue and enterprise"? In the Commentary on the Hexagrams, Confucius said: "In ancient times, the sage created the Yi by intuitively connecting with the divine to produce Yi stalks, by adding the number of heaven and subtracting the number of earth to rely on numbers, by observing changes in yin and yang to establish hexagrams, by expressing the hardness and softness to produce lines, and by harmonizing with morality and reasoning with righteousness to reach the ultimate destiny. 'Intuitive connection' and 'relying on numbers' are the paths of moral advancement in the Way of the Yi." Mr. Pang Pu believes that the sage deeply grasped the Way of the divine and came up with the method of using Yi stalks to divine hexagrams. The phrase "intuitively connecting with the divine to produce Yi stalks" is the first step; then, using the Yi stalks to symbolize the process of the generation of heaven and earth and repeatedly arranging them, some numbers are obtained, which is the second step; next, based on the odd or even of the numbers, hexagrams are listed, which is the third step; then, the positions of the lines are determined, which is the fourth step; and finally, from the hexagrams and lines, auspiciousness, inauspiciousness, regret, and caution are understood, which is the fifth step. Among these five steps, the second step is the most crucial, as it is the decisive step in forming the hexagrams. This is consistent with the method of divination introduced in the Upper Commentary: that is, taking forty-nine Yi stalks from fifty and dividing them into two to symbolize yin and yang, and hanging one to symbolize the three. Symbolizing yin and yang is like yin and yang within the Taiji. This is explicitly stated by Taishi Dan later: "One gives birth to two, two gives birth to three, and three gives birth to all things." Especially emphasized by Zhang Zai of the Song Dynasty: "The earth is divided into two because it divides hardness and softness, men and women, and follows the law. Heaven is divided into two because it symbolizes the one Taiji and two instruments, and follows the nature. One thing has two aspects, and it is qi. One gives birth to the divine, two gives birth to transformation, and this is the participation of heaven."
I. A New Interpretation of Virtue and Enterprise: Revealing the Unity of Heaven and Humanity
In the Lower Commentary, Confucius discusses the function of the Yi as "to communicate the virtue of the divine and to classify the emotions of all things." However, although the Way of the Yi establishes a temporal-spatial-numerical model, it remains vague about the generative model of all things. The Upper Commentary states, "Therefore, the Yi has the great beginning, which gives birth to the two instruments, the two instruments give birth to the four images, the four images give birth to the eight trigrams, the eight trigrams determine auspiciousness and inauspiciousness, and auspiciousness and inauspiciousness give birth to great enterprises." This discusses the numerical model of the generative process of all things, but it does not detail the embodiment of the transformation between the two instruments and the four images, merely passing it over with the phrase "varying through the combination of five and six, and interweaving the numbers." Zhu Xi, in the Basic Principles of the Yi, says, "Combining five and interweaving are ancient terms, but combining five is particularly difficult to understand." The Huainanzi·Taizu Xun explains the language of the Yi by taking heaven, earth, and humanity as the "three" and the five relationships of ruler-subject, father-son, husband-wife, elder-younger, and friend as the "five," but this explanation may not fully convey the meaning. However, within the system of "heaven and humanity are one" established by Dong Zhongshu, it can be explained quite well. Mr. Ma Yong points out in The Great Sage—Dong Zhongshu that it was Dong Zhongshu who truly combined yin and yang with the five elements to complete the construction of his system. According to his design, "the qi of heaven and earth combines into one, divides into yin and yang, distinguishes into four seasons, and arranges into the five elements," and "they mutually generate and mutually overcome." He completed the cosmic pattern of yin and yang and the five elements by combining time, space, and qi, truly integrating yin and yang with the five elements. It was precisely on the basis of combining the numerical model of cosmic generation—yin and yang with the material basis of cosmic generation—the five elements—that Dong Zhongshu established a system of "heaven and humanity correspond" in the real world.
Then, what is the connotation of "heaven" in Dong Zhongshu's academic system? The Spring and Autumn Annals·Shunming states: "Heaven is the ancestor of all things, and nothing is born without heaven." The Principles of Heaven and Earth states: "Heaven holds the Way and is the master of all things." The states: "Heaven is the lord of all gods." That is to say, heaven is an organic whole, and humans can take it as a model. However, what humans take as a model is the (substance) of this organic whole, i.e., as stated in the Deep Examination of Names: "Heaven does not speak, but it allows humans to reveal its meaning; it does not act, but it allows humans to act within it. Names are the meaning revealed by the sages, and they must be deeply observed." This meaning revealed by the sages is the flowing substance. Because ancient sages passed on something, humans must "follow the ancient" to obtain it. However, since the names of this substance may vary from person to person, one must carefully contemplate the names used by ancient sages and extract the true substance from them.
Then, what is the name of this substance in Dong Zhongshu's system? The Heavy Governance states: "Only the sage can unite all things under one and tie them to the origin. Origin is like the root, and its meaning follows the beginning and end of heaven and earth. Therefore, the origin is the root of all things, and the root of humanity is within it. Where is it? It is before heaven and earth." Thus, the substance of all things in heaven and earth is "origin," and looking back at the "great origin of the Way comes from heaven" in the Book of Han·Dong Zhongshu and the "sages follow heaven to establish the Way," we can see that this Way, although taken from heaven, is the (substance) of heaven. That is to say, as stated in the Jade Brightness chapter: "To say the one origin is the great beginning, everything flows from it." Understanding this principle allows for further elaboration. The Dual Ends states: "The Way of the Spring and Autumn Annals is to use the profound origin to correct the end of heaven; and to use the end of heaven to correct the governance of the king." The intermediate link "the end of heaven" is what again? The Official System Emulating Heaven states: "What is the end of heaven? It is: heaven is one end, earth is one end, yin is one end, yang is one end, fire is one end, metal is one end, wood is one end, water is one end, and humanity is one end. These ten ends are complete—the number of heaven. Yang is superior, yin is inferior, heaven, earth, and humanity participate, and the five elements mutually generate and overcome." To combine this mode of virtue and enterprise with humans, he particularly used the method of investigating things to argue that humans have a natural correspondence with heaven, providing a reliable premise for defining the mode of human survival's virtue and enterprise based on the principles of yin and yang and the five elements. For example, the Being Human is Heaven states: "To be born is not to be human; to be human is heaven. The essence of being human is based on heaven, and heaven is also the great grandfather of humanity. This is why humans are superior to heaven. The human body is formed by the number of heaven; the human blood and qi are formed by the will of heaven and benevolence; the human virtue is formed by the principle of heaven and righteousness; the human likes and dislikes are formed by the warmth and coolness of heaven; the human joys and sorrows are formed by the cold and heat of heaven; the human destiny is formed by the four seasons of heaven; the human life has responses to joys, sorrows, and the like, similar to spring, autumn, winter, and summer. Joy is the response of spring; anger is the response of autumn; joy is the response of summer; sorrow is the response of winter. The deputy of heaven is in humanity, and the human emotions and natures have their origins in heaven." The phrase "formed by the number of heaven" is what the Human Emulating the Number of Heaven states: "Heaven uses the number of a full year to form the human body, so the small joints are three hundred sixty-six, corresponding to the number of days; the large joints are twelve, corresponding to the number of months; there are five internal organs, corresponding to the five elements; there are four limbs externally, corresponding to the four seasons." As for those "uncountable" things, such as closing the eyes corresponding to day and night, hardness and softness corresponding to winter and summer, and joy and sorrow corresponding to yin and yang, as well as joy, anger, sorrow, and joy corresponding to spring, autumn, winter, and summer, can be called corresponding by category—"all should be the same and correspond to heaven as one." And the foundation of this correspondence is "the refined qi of heaven and earth," as stated in the Spring and Autumn Annals·Human Emulating the Number of Heaven: "The virtue of heaven is spread, the virtue of earth is transformed, and the virtue of humanity is righteousness. The qi of heaven is above, the qi of earth is below, and the qi of humanity is between. Spring gives birth, summer grows, and all things flourish; autumn withers, winter stores, and all things are hidden. Therefore, nothing is more refined than qi, nothing is richer than earth, and nothing is more divine than heaven. The refined qi of heaven and earth that produces things is nothing more precious than humans. Humans receive their destiny from heaven, so they have a transcendent support. No other things can be virtuous and righteous as humans can; no other things can match heaven and earth as humans can. Because other things have ailments and cannot match heaven and earth, but humans alone can receive the refined qi of heaven and earth and match heaven and earth, having the same and corresponding numerical (including categories) consistency in natural generation. This formal consistency is due to the ability of heaven and humanity to correspond to each other because of the refined qi, i.e., as stated in the Principles of Yin and Yang: "Heaven also has joys and sorrows of qi and the heart of joys and sorrows, and it corresponds to humans. To combine them by category, heaven and humanity are one."
For all things, there is a "principle of corresponding to the same kind" in the investigation of things. The Corresponding to the Same Kind states: "Now, if water is poured on flat ground, it goes to the damp; if fire is evenly applied to firewood, it goes to the moist. All things leave what is different and follow what is the same. Therefore, when qi is the same, it will combine; when sounds are similar, they will respond. The evidence is clear. Try tuning the qin and se, and place them alternately. Strike the Gong, and the other Gongs will respond; strike the Shang, and the other Shangs will respond. The five notes correspond to themselves and ring on their own, not because of any divine power, but because of the principle. Beauty attracts beauty, and evil attracts evil; this is the response of the same kind. As the horse neighs, the horse responds; as the ox barks, the ox responds. When a king is about to rise, his auspicious signs appear first; when he is about to perish, signs of evil appear first; this is because things correspond to each other by category. Therefore, to bring rain, use the dragon; to drive away heat, use a fan; where the army is stationed, thorns and brambles grow. Beauty and evil all have their origins, and no one knows where they are. When heaven is about to rain, human illnesses move first, this is the response of yin. When heaven is about to rain, it also makes people want to sleep, this is the yin qi. When there is worry, it also makes people lie down, this is the yin seeking. When there is joy, it makes people not want to sleep, this is the yang seeking. Water grows longer by a few inches at night; when the east wind blows, wine overflows; when a sick person is at night, their illness worsens; when the rooster is about to dawn, it all crows and opposes each other, its qi becomes more refined. Therefore, yang adds to yang, and yin adds to yin; the qi of yang and yin can be added or diminished by category. Heaven has yin and yang, and humans also have yin and yang. When the yin qi of heaven rises, the yin qi of humans responds; when the yin qi of humans rises, the yin qi of heaven should also respond, and the principle is the same. Those who understand this want to bring rain, then move yin to rise yin; to stop rain, then move yang to rise yang. Therefore, to bring rain is not divine, but it is mysterious because the principle is subtle. Not only can the qi of yin and yang move forward or backward by category, but even misfortune and fortune are born from this. None of them move first, but things move in response. Therefore, the wise and sagacious, by introspection and listening inwards, are bright. The reason they are bright is that they alone are bright because the sage knows their original heart, and it is all here. Therefore, when the qin and se are struck, the other Gongs ring and respond on their own, this is the movement of things by category. Their movement is invisible, and if people do not see the form of their movement, they call it self-ringing. When movement is invisible, it is called natural, but in fact, there is something that makes it so. Things have something that makes them move, but the movement is invisible. The Book of Documents·Great Transmission states: "When the Zhou was about to rise, there was a large red bird carrying grain seeds and gathering on the top of Wangwu Mountain. King Wu was happy, and all the ministers were happy. The Duke of Zhou said: 'How splendid! How splendid! Heaven shows this to encourage us.'" This is what must be relied on.