Life and Death Transcendence and Human Concern

Author: Li Xiaoguang
Publisher:
Publishing Date: 2002-09-01
Features: In the Zhuangzi, the Dao is metaphorically represented by the mystical pearl, while knowledge symbolizes human reason. Li Zhu represents human sensation, and Gou embodies rational ability as well, akin to the talent for argumentation. Xiang Wangang, on the other hand, signifies the state of comprehending the Dao. The phrase "Xiang Wangang finally retrieves the pearl" indicates that the pursuit and realization of the Dao are unrelated to human sensation or rational actions; they are instead concerned with the very essence of human existence, possessing a profound existential significance. Only by closing the channels leading to ordinary self-directed upward movement can the Dao be revealed in its authentic state of existence.
In contrast, the Huainanzi holds that the Dao can only be encountered through genuine existence. It states: "The soul asks the spirit, 'What is the embodiment of the Dao?' The spirit replies, 'It is embodied in the wu (non-existence) of you (existence).'" The soul then asks, "Does the wu and you have form?" The spirit answers, "No." "How can it be heard?" The spirit says, "I merely encounter it! It is invisible and inaudible—called the 'dark and mysterious.' The 'dark and mysterious' is used to describe the Dao, not to encounter it." The soul replies, "I have grasped it! It is achieved through introspection and self-reflection." The spirit says, "Those who encounter the Dao cannot see its form or proclaim its name. Now you have form and name, so how can you encounter the Dao?" The soul asks, "Who is the speaker?" The spirit replies, "I will return to my origins!" The soul looks back, and suddenly the spirit disappears, leaving only the soul, which also fades into formlessness.
The Huainanzi here posits that the Dao is embodied in the wu of you, something invisible and inaudible, existing beyond the realm of human sensation. It is noteworthy that the Huainanzi considers terms like the 'dark and mysterious' (and others such as 'hazy and indistinct,' 'Dao,' and 'nameless') used by Laozi and Zhuangzi to refer to the Dao's essence as mere metaphors, not the Dao itself. To encounter the Dao, one must imitate its existential characteristics—i.e., dissolve the reality of human life—allowing the spirit to reach the same ethereal and pure state, free from any mixture, thereby directly encountering the Dao. However, this attainment of the Dao is not a conventional act of cognition but an existential experience. Only by entering a deep, authentic state of existence can one meet the Dao. A mature theory of the mind naturally includes both metaphysical and practical dimensions. Early Daoist thinkers also addressed the cultivation of the mind for realizing the Dao. Among the most typical practices are the Xin Zhai (Mind Abiding) and Zuo Wang (Sitting and Forgetting) mentioned by Zhuangzi.
Regarding the meaning of Xin Zhai, the Zhuangzi Ren Jiang Shi (The World of Humankind) uses a dialogue between Confucius and Yan Hui to explain it. It states: "Yan Hui asks, 'May I inquire about Xin Zhai?' Confucius replies, 'If you concentrate your mind, do not listen with your ears but with your heart; do not listen with your heart but with your spirit! Listening stops at the ears, the heart stops at resonance. The spirit is empty and awaits things. Only the Dao gathers in emptiness. Emptiness is Xin Zhai.'" Yan Hui asks, 'My body has begun to be guided, and it is truly myself; the guidance comes from outside, yet it is still me—can this be called emptiness?' Confucius replies, 'That is it! I have told you, but you have not yet grasped it. How can you pass through the enclosures without being affected by names? Entering, you are like a bird settling in a nest—how much more so for humans! This is the transformation of all things, the thread of Shun, the path of Fu Xi and Ji Hu—how much more so for those who practice it!'
Another passage in the Zhuangzi Da Zong Shi (The Great Master) discusses Zuo Wang through the words of Confucius and Yan Hui. Yan Hui says, 'I have grown wiser.' Confucius asks, 'What do you mean?' Yan Hui replies, 'I have forgotten benevolence and righteousness.' Confucius says, 'That is enough, but you have not yet reached the goal.' Later, when they meet again, Yan Hui says, 'I have grown wiser.' Confucius asks, 'What do you mean?' Yan Hui replies, 'I have forgotten ritual and music!' Confucius is startled and asks, 'What is Zuo Wang?' Yan Hui replies, 'Abandoning the body, discarding wisdom, separating from form and intellect, aligning with the great Dao—this is Zuo Wang.' Confucius says, 'When aligned, there is no preference; when transformed, there is no constant form—how can one be truly wise? I will follow you and learn from you.'"
Thus, Xin Zhai and Zuo Wang involve controlling the operation of the mind to achieve a state of emptiness and tranquility. In this state, the practitioner transcends the dualities of self and other, matter and self, thereby realizing the formless and imageless Dao as an entity. From the perspective of the development of Chinese transcendental thought, Xin Zhai and Zuo Wang are distinctive Daoist practices of cultivating the mind, differing from the so-called 'mind cultivation' of Buddhist Chan and the Neo-Confucianism of the Song and Ming dynasties. In modern terms, Xin Zhai and Zuo Wang mean completely dissolving the self-awareness that obscures the light of the Dao, allowing the self to become a stage of the Dao's unobstructed radiance. Through this method, the human spirit naturally overcomes all constraints.
Because the goal of Xin Zhai and Zuo Wang is to forget the self and external objects, the Zhuangzi Zhi Bei You sometimes describes the ethereal state achieved through Xin Zhai as "the body like withered bones" or "the mind like cold ashes." The Zai You chapter discusses the cultivation of the mind by describing the abandonment of the body, the discarding of wisdom, and entering the realm of the 'dark and mysterious': Hong Meng says, "Ah! Nourish the mind. You dwell in inaction, and things naturally transform. Abandon your body, discard your wisdom, forget distinctions and align with the 'dark and mysterious.' Free the mind and spirit, and they become formless. All things exist in chaos, each returning to its roots. Returning to their roots without knowing it, they remain in confusion throughout life. If one knows it, it is already separation. Do not ask about names, do not gaze at emotions—things naturally arise."
In summary, Zhuangzi's Zuo Wang and Xin Zhai are practices of cultivating the mind that involve adhering to the principle of forgetting—forgetting the self, forgetting external objects, forgetting the inner world—by closing the channels of sensation and rational cognition, allowing the mind to enter a state of chaos, simplicity, and purity. Zhuangzi believed that only by entering this state can one encounter the ultimate Dao and thereby attain and embody it. Notably, Zhuangzi's Zuo Wang and Xin Zhai spiritual cultivation actually contain a reverse return to the generative movement of the Dao—capturing the Dao's essence through gradual forgetting of the self, external objects, and inner states, thereby returning to the Dao's original state. This differs significantly from the static mind cultivation of Buddhist Chan. Zhuangzi's mind cultivation practices had a profound influence on later Daoism. The Tang Dynasty high priest Ma Chengzhen wrote the Zuo Wang Lun (On Sitting and Forgetting) to develop Zhuangzi's ideas, advancing the theory of Daoist and Daoist cultivation to a new level.
Overall, the Daoist theory of cultivating the Dao aligns with its views on society and life. That is, humans inherently possess Dao-nature, but due to their post-natal development—i.e., gradual immersion in civilization—they have lost the Dao. As a result, society has turned to conflict, and humans have lost the ability to live in harmony with nature. To restore societal harmony and enable humans to once again coexist with the heavens and earth, people must strive to cultivate their minds through various means. The cultivation methods proposed by Daoism were inherited and continuously refined by later Daoism, ultimately becoming the consistent theoretical direction of Daoist belief in immortality.
Chapter 3: Transcendental Features of Daoist Immortal Belief
Section 1: The Question of Life and Death
During the Wei and Jin periods, Daoism transformed from the folk to the upper class, and its core beliefs also shifted. Immortal cultivation became the central belief of Daoism. Immortal belief had always been an important part of early Daoist thought (see Chapter for details). Descriptions of immortal characteristics are frequently found in Daoist texts. The Zhuangzi Xiao You You states: "Liezi rides the wind, effortlessly; after fifteen days, he returns." It also says: "On Mount Mao Gu, there live divine beings with snow-white skin, graceful as virgins, who do not eat grains, inhale wind and drink dew, ride clouds, and drive flying dragons, wandering beyond the four seas. They make things free from disease, and the grains ripen. These beings are unharmed by creatures, undrowned by great floods, and unscathed by scorching heat even when metals melt and mountains bake."
The Zhuangzi Qi Wu Lun says: "The supreme person is divine—unaffected by fire in vast marshes, unharmed by cold in the Milky Way, unstartled by thunder that shatters mountains or winds that shake the seas. Such beings ride clouds and ride the sun's gate, wandering beyond the four seas, unchanged by life and death." The Zhuangzi Ren Zong Shi states: "(The ancient true person) climbs high without fear, enters water without getting wet, enters fire without feeling heat—this is the knowledge of ascending to the Dao." The Zhuangzi Da Zong Shi says: "Heng Wei Shi attained the Dao and controlled heaven and earth. Fu Xi attained it and inherited the mother of qi. Wei Dou attained it and remained unchanged throughout eternity. The sun and moon attained it and continued to move forever. Kan Hua attained it and inherited Kunlun. Ping Yi attained it and roamed the great rivers. Huangdi attained it and ascended to the clouds. Zhuan Xu attained it and resided in the mysterious palace. Yu Qiang attained it and stood at the North Pole. Xi Wangmu attained it and sat in the Lesser Void, unknowable in origin and end. Pengzu attained it and lived from the time of You until the Five Dukes. Chuanyue attained it and served King Wu Ding, ruling the world, riding the east pole and the tail of the comet, joining the stars."
The Liezi Huangdi says: "Liezi lives on Mount Jie in the sea, where divine beings with snow-white skin, like virgins, inhale wind and drink dew, do not eat grains, and have minds like deep springs, bodies like virgins, unattached and undisturbed, with immortals and sages as their subjects." The Liezi Tang Wen describes the Bohai Sea in the east, stretching for countless miles, with a bottomless valley called Gui Xū, where the waters of the eight poles and nine wilds, as well as the Milky Way, flow without increasing or decreasing. There are five mountains: Dai Xing, Yuan Qiao, Fang Hu, Ying Zhou, and Peng Lai. These mountains are three thousand miles high and nine thousand miles at the top, with a distance of seven thousand miles between them, serving as neighbors. On their summits are palaces of gold and jade, and the creatures are all white. Trees bearing pearls and jade grow everywhere, with flowers and fruits of all flavors, which, when eaten, grant immortality. The people there are of the lineage of immortals and sages, flying back and forth day and night in countless numbers."
The descriptions of divine beings in the Zhuangzi and Liezi include not eating grains, riding clouds, driving flying dragons, entering water without getting wet, and entering fire without feeling heat. The Chu Ci Yuan You mentions "eating the six qi," "drinking Huan Xie," and "driving eight dragons," as well as "raising cloud banners." From this, it is evident that during the Warring States period, the belief in immortals was widely prevalent in society.
4. Ontology of the Dao
Ma Chengzhen believed that the Dao is a mysterious entity with character but no form. To achieve longevity and immortality, one must "attain the Dao." In the Zuo Wang Lun, he states: "The Dao is a divine and extraordinary thing, spiritual yet having character, empty yet having no form. It is unpredictable, its influence cannot be sought, and it is unknowable yet happens naturally—this is called the Dao." "Where does the Dao come from?" He explains, "The greatest sages attained it anciently, and the wonderful method is passed down to this day." This mysterious Dao is not something ordinary people can perceive; it transcends the sensory. "The Dao transcends color and taste, and true nature is separated from desires." To achieve longevity and immortality, one must "attain the Dao." "What humans value is life; what life values is the Dao. Following the Dao with the Dao—like fish having water." Fish cannot live without water, just as life cannot exist without the Dao. The two must "guard" and "protect" each other for humans to live long. Therefore: those who practice longevity must not lose the Dao; those who study the Dao must not lose life. Let the Dao and life guard each other, and life and the Dao protect each other—only then can one live long. Those who live long possess purity. Mountains have jade, and plants do not wither because of it; people uphold the Dao, and their bodies remain eternal. He believed that the length of a person's life depends not on "heaven" or "others" but on whether they grasp the essence of "returning to the Dao" early and practice it diligently.
Then, what is "attaining the Dao"? He says, "When the spirit and Dao align, it is called attaining the Dao." Ma Chengzhen also believed that to attain the Dao, one must cultivate the Dao; the key to cultivating the Dao lies in "wu wei" (non-action) and "removing knowledge." According to the Tang Shu Biography of Ma Chengzhen, Emperor Zhaozong of Tang asked Ma Chengzhen about the principles of yin and yang, numerology, and divination. Ma Chengzhen replied, "The essence of the Dao is to reduce the Dao day by day, reducing it until it reaches non-action. Moreover, what one knows and sees in the mind and eyes is always being reduced and yet cannot stop. How can one then pursue foreign knowledge and increase one's intellect?" Thus, Ma Chengzhen regarded this method of "removing knowledge" as the main method of "cultivating the Dao." To enable people to achieve "removing knowledge," he linked "cultivating the Dao" with "cultivating the self." The expression of "removing knowledge" in "cultivating the self" is what he called "gathering the mind" and "sitting and forgetting." Ma Chengzhen believed, "The mind is the vessel of the Dao. When it is extremely empty and still, the Dao resides there." Therefore, "cultivating the Dao" must first begin with "gathering the mind." How to "gather the mind"? Ma Chengzhen believed, "The mind is the master of the body and the teacher of the gods. Stillness gives birth to wisdom, and movement leads to confusion." This means that "stillness" can "gather the mind" and produce the "wisdom" to reach the Dao, while "movement" only leads to confusion. Therefore, Ma Chengzhen placed great emphasis on cultivating the mind from both the perspective of breaking free from external conditions and eliminating thoughts. He believed that the reason the individual mind cannot be truly free lies in its constant engagement with external conditions. The external conditions are divided into internal and external conditions. The two conditions are like two firm shackles that bind this divine mind to the dualism of mind and matter. Therefore, to liberate the mind-body from this dualism, one must first break free from conditions. The external condition is the external object, the most obvious form of condition. When the mind breaks free from the external condition, it can overcome the duality of existence and non-existence. At the beginning of studying the Dao, one must sit still, gather the mind, and break free from conditions, remaining in nothingness, not clinging to anything, naturally entering a state of emptiness, and thus aligning with the Dao. This mind still relies on conditions and is not accustomed to independence. Sudden detachment is difficult to endure. Even if temporary peace is achieved, it remains scattered. Whenever it arises, it must be restrained; through prolonged practice, one naturally achieves tranquility.