Research on the "Mencius" and Xi Ci

Author: Zhou Wende
Publisher:
Publishing Date: 2002-09-01
Features: 3. Homomorphous Combination Method
This method was proposed and applied in practice by Liu Shuxin (1980). Its theoretical basis is, "In language, if two words refer to the same object are connected with the same word referring to another object, the two resulting combinations must also refer to the same object." The term "Homomorphous Combination Method" refers to: Suppose there are two words to be tested, "A" and "B." If you want to know whether their "objects are the same," select a connecting word "C" that can be linked with the given two words. If "A-C" and "B-C" refer to the same thing, then "A" and "B" are synonyms. As Liu Shuxin said, "If A-C and B-C refer to the same thing, then it can be concluded that A and B have the same object and are synonyms." For example, "greeting guests" and "greeting visiting guests" refer to the same thing, where "guests" and "visiting guests" refer to the same object and are synonyms. If the Homomorphous Combination Method is compared with the Replacement Method, it is found that the two methods are just different in perspective and essentially have no difference. Still using Liu Shuxin's example, it can be considered that "greeting" remains unchanged, while "guests" and "visiting guests" are still mutually replaceable. Therefore, some scholars have pointed out that this method is essentially the same as the Replacement Method. Chi Changhai, after a detailed analysis, concluded that the Homomorphous Combination Method and the Replacement Method "have the same effect in different ways" and that the two are "at odds in appearance but aligned in essence." More importantly, this method cannot be used to determine synonyms in ancient Chinese. The corpus of ancient Chinese is a closed system, and researchers cannot claim to provide examples as needed. If the literature being studied does not contain the "combinations" needed by the researcher, this method cannot be applied. Therefore, this method is difficult to use in the study of synonyms in ancient Chinese. In summary, the Replacement Method, Semantic Feature Analysis, and Homomorphous Combination Method are basically proposed for modern Chinese and have certain limitations in practical operation. Their prominent feature is that they are all limited to example analysis, and different scholars often determine synonyms with "great subjectivity and arbitrariness," so the synonyms determined are naturally "not universally agreed upon, and some may even not even be approved by those who hold the same views." The above methods are not entirely suitable for the study of synonyms in ancient Chinese and cannot be used as a basis for determining synonyms in ancient Chinese. 3.2.5 Shame, Regret, and Remorse 3.2.5.1 "Shame" appears 19 times in Mencius. Below are the sentences where "shame" appears and the meaning of "shame" in those sentences: 107. Gongsun Chou Xi: The people of Yan rebelled. The king said, "I am greatly ashamed before Mencius." (4.9/530) King Xuan of Qi sent troops to conquer Yan, and Mencius once advised King Xuan to "issue orders quickly, return their young and old, stop their heavy weapons, consult the people of Yan, install a ruler, and then leave." But King Xuan did not listen, and as a result, the people of Yan rebelled. Therefore, King Xuan said, "I am greatly ashamed before Mencius." This means King Xuan felt very ashamed of Mencius. Thus, "shame" here means "ashamed." 3.2.5.2 "Regret" and "remorse" each appear once in Mencius. Below are the sentences where "regret" and "remorse" appear and the meanings of "regret" and "remorse" in those sentences: 108. Jin Xin Shang: "Looking up, I am not ashamed of heaven; looking down, I am not remorseful of people." (13.20/1767) The two sentences in this example correspond to each other, and "regret" and "remorse" are mutually illustrative. Shuowen Jiezi (Part on the Heart): "Remorse, ashamed." Also, "Shame, regret." Also, Part on the Female: "Regret, ashamed." "Regret" and "remorse" are both interpreted as "shame." Thus, "shame," "regret," and "remorse" all mean "ashamed." 3.2.5.3 In summary, in Mencius, "shame," "regret," and "remorse" each have one sense: ashamed. Therefore, in the sense of "ashamed," the three words form a synonym relationship. 3.2.6 Observe, Reflect, Examine, View, Patrol 3.2.6.1 "Observe" appears 8 times in Mencius. Below are the sentences where "observe" appears and the meaning of "observe" in those sentences: 109. Liang Hui Wang Xia: The people of the country all say they are worthy, then observe them, and see that they are worthy, then use them. The people of the country all say they are unworthy, then observe them, and see that they are unworthy, then dismiss them. The people of the country all say they can be killed, then observe them, and see that they can be killed, then kill them. (2.7/223) Sun Shuang's annotation: "When the people of a country all say that this person is worthy, they should be promoted and used, then the king observes them. When the people of a country all say that this person is unworthy, they should not be promoted or used, then the king observes them. When the people of a country all say that this person is guilty, they can be killed, then the king observes them." According to Sun's annotation, the three instances of "observe" in this sentence have the same meaning, all referring to detailed examination. Therefore, the "observe" here means "detailed examination." 110. Liang Hui Wang Shang: Observe the policies of neighboring states, and none are as dedicated as the king's heart. (1.3/22) Sun Shi's annotation: "Observe, look carefully." The "observe" here means "detailed examination." 111. Jin Xin Shang: Unable to observe the three-year mourning period, but observe the total and small mourning periods in detail; letting food flow and spill, and asking without teeth, is called not knowing the essentials. (13.46/1866) This means that unable to carry out the three-year mourning ceremony, but observe the total mourning period of three months and the small mourning period of five months in detail. Therefore, the "observe" here means "detailed examination." 112. Liang Hui Wang Shang: Bright enough to observe the tip of a hair, but unable to see a cartload of firewood. (Zhi 7/86) Sun Shi's annotation: "The brightness of the eyes can observe the tip of a hair, but cannot see a large cartload of firewood." Sun explains "observe" as "view," meaning to look carefully. Thus, the "observe" here contains the meaning of "seeing." 113. Li Lou Xia: Shun is bright in understanding things and examines people in terms of ethics, acting according to benevolence and righteousness, not just practicing benevolence and righteousness. (8.19/1046) Zhao Ji's annotation: "Examine, observe." The "observe" in the previous sentence is mutually illustrative with "bright," and is synonymous with "bright." Therefore, the "observe" here means "clearly." 3.2.23,5 "Therefore" appears 119 times in Mencius, 17 times in the disyllabic phrase "is therefore," used as a conjunction, meaning "so" 88 times. The remaining 14 times are used as monosyllabic verbs, and the meanings of the examples can be summarized into 4 senses, and the 4 senses and their frequencies are: (1) harm, disaster (2 times); (2) old friends, noun (1 time); (3) old, old, adjective (2 times); (4) reason, cause, noun (9 times). Below are examples of the 14 instances: (1) harm, disaster: When Prince Ding Gong died, Shi Yu said to Ran You, "Formerly, Mencius served with me in Song and never forgot it. Now, unfortunately, there is a great disaster, I want to ask Mencius, and then act." (5.2/591) Parents are both alive, brothers have no disaster, one joy. (13.20/1767) (2) Old friends: Those who ask for favors while being arrogant, those who ask for talents while being arrogant, those who ask for age while being arrogant, those who ask for merit while being arrogant, those who ask for old while being arrogant, are all answered. (13.43/1858) (3) Old, old: The so-called old country does not mean having tall trees, but having hereditary ministers. (2.7/218) Zhou was not far from Wu Ding, his old families and customs, the flowing wind and good governance, still existed. (3.1/314) (4) Reason, cause: The height of heaven, the path of stars, if you seek the reason, the arrival of the thousand-year sun can be achieved while sitting. (8,26/3079) The creation of heaven makes it one, and Yi Ziyu two, so. (5.5/713) 3.2.23.6 "Calamity" appears 4 times in Mencius, and the meanings of the 4 instances can be summarized into two senses, and the two senses and their frequencies are: (1) harm, disaster, noun (2 times); (2) harm, disaster, verb (2 times). There are not many examples, and below are the examples: (1) harm, disaster: If you do not take it, there will be calamity from heaven. (2.10/242) The three holes of the feudal lords are: land, people, and affairs. Those who treasure jade and jade will surely bring calamity upon themselves. (Zhong 4.28/1946) (2) harm, disaster: Not teaching the people and using them is called harming the people. Those who harm the people are not accepted in the world of Yao and Shun. (12,8/1658) 3.2.23.7 "Cruel" appears 5 times in Mencius, 1 time used in citing ancient literature, appearing in Teng Wen Gong Xia (6.5), and the remaining 4 instances of the meaning can be summarized into two senses, and the two senses and their frequencies are: (1) verb, cruel, harm (1 time); (2) cruel and tyrannical person (3 times). Below are the examples: (1) cruel, harm: In years of famine, the people of the lord are old and weak, turning into ditches and, the strong scatter and go to all directions, thousands of people. But the granaries and treasury of the lord are full, and no one reports it, this is the upper class being negligent and cruel to the lower class. (2.12/262) (2) cruel and tyrannical person: Save the people from water and fire, and take away the cruel ones. (6.5/787) Those who steal benevolence are called "stealers," those who steal righteousness are called "cruel." Those who are cruel and steal are called "one man." (2.8/230) (11) In the world, the decline of the Way, the evil doctrines and violent actions have emerged, ministers have killed their rulers, and sons have killed their fathers. (6.9/827) In the above example, "murder" is used for a son killing a father. "Kill" appears 53 times in Mencius, used for the meaning of "killing" 48 times. In terms of the relationship, the recipient is a person 47 times; the recipient is an animal 1 time. As for the recipient being a person, 9 times are used for upper killing lower, 38 times for general reference, and not once for lower killing upper. For example: (12) If you kill scholars without guilt, then the ministers can leave; if you kill the people without guilt, then the scholars can move. (8.4/1017) (13) Mencius replied, "Killing with a stick and killing with a blade, is there any difference?" (1.4/40) (14) "He said, 'Those who do not like to kill can unify it.'" (1.6/57) (15) Now, the shepherds of the world, none of them like to kill. If there is someone who does not like to kill, then the people of the world will all stretch their necks and look forward to it. (1.6/60) In the above examples, the recipient of "kill" is a person, used for upper killing lower. (16) Because he killed this child and demanded it, all over the world would say: 'It is not to enrich the world, but to revenge a man and a woman.'" (6.5/779) (17) Feng Meng studied archery with Yi, mastered Yi's skills, thought that only Yi was better than himself in the world, and then killed Yi. (8.24/1061) In the above two examples, the recipient of "kill" is a person, used for the general meaning of "killing." (18) I heard that within the suburbs there is a park of forty acres, killing its deer is like killing a person's crime. (2.2/158) In the above example, the first "kill" has the recipient as an animal, and the second "kill" has the recipient as a person. "Take" appears 58 times in Mencius, used for the meaning of "killing" 1 time. In terms of the relationship, the wise kill the unwise. The recipient is a person. For example: (19) Save the people from water and fire, and take away the cruel ones. (6.5/787) This sentence means that the king's expedition is just to save the people from water and fire, and to kill the tyrannical ruler. The meaning of "take" is "kill," used for the wise killing the unwise. "Kill" appears 3 times in Mencius, used for the meaning of "killing" twice. In terms of the relationship, the wise kill the unwise 1 time; upper killing lower 1 time. Not once for lower killing upper. The recipient is all a person. For example: (20) The Duke of Zhou assisted Wu Wang in killing Zhou, and for three years he fought against the king, drove Fei Lian to the corner of the sea and killed him, destroyed fifty countries, drove tigers, leopards, rhinoceroses, and elephants far away, and the world was greatly pleased. (6.9/823) In the above example, "kill" is used for the wise killing the unwise.