History of Western Art's Eastward Spread

Author: Kan Wei (Japan)
Publisher:
Publish Date: 2002-04-01
Features: Artistic trends that occurred in Western regions and Europe gradually spread to the East, reaching as far as Japan, the farthest east. But how did these paths unfold? This small book aims to clarify these routes: The eastward flow of Western culture began with merchants, bringing Greek sculptures, Persian textiles, Italian clocks, and Portuguese Madonnas into the of Easterners. The fusion of East and West was realized in art, with a subtle Western influence permeating Japan, China, Korea, and the entire Asian continent. Excerpt: Chapter The Eastward Spread of Ancient European Art The spread of European art to Japan dates back to ancient times, but it was closely tied to the East-West trade of Europeans. China was known as a silk-producing nation since ancient times. According to Herodotus, Greek merchants arrived in the western borders of China as early as the 6th and 7th centuries BC. They called China "Seres," originally meaning "silk" in Greek. Thus, China became known as the "silk-producing land" in the eyes of Europeans. In Rome, China was called "Serica," and in essence, it was because Chinese silk was sold to various Western countries that Europeans referred to China as the "silk land." According to Ptolemy, Greek merchants actually reached the "silk metropolis" (Sera Metropolis). So, where was this "silk metropolis"? According to the German geographer Richthofen, it was Chang'an. However, others speculated it was not Chang'an but a city in the western borders of China. Originally, Kashgar (Kashgar) on the southern route of the Tian Shan Mountains was an international market, where caravans from Arabia and other places gathered to trade Chinese silk to the West. Thus, it is possible that the "silk metropolis" visited by Greek merchants was located here.
How did ancient Greeks reach China? Regarding the routes they took to the East, Japanese scholar Kakinomoto Kageki has clarified them. That is, the Greeks first used Byzantium (Byzantium) as a foothold and then crossed the Black Sea by sea to colonize the Crimean Peninsula. To this day, many Greek relics can still be found on the peninsula. From here, they entered the Sea of Azov and then followed the Don River upstream. After a short land journey, they reached the lower reaches of the Volga River, then followed it downstream to the Caspian Sea. Crossing the Caspian Sea and landing on the shore would bring them to the Kirghiz Steppe. Crossing this plain to the Altai region was free of mountains, deserts, and strong enemies—it could be said to be a path with no resistance. The Greeks had long been able to utilize this route, as evidenced by their knowledge of the Caspian Sea. Herodotus' writings mention: "The Caspian Sea is a long sea, about fifteen days' sailing north to south and eight days east to west." Thus, it can be imagined that ancient Greeks passed through this area to reach the interior of Asia.
However, if they crossed the Kirghiz Steppe eastward and followed Lake Balkhash, they could reach the northern route of the Tian Shan Mountains in modern Xinjiang Province without passing through many high mountains. So, what was the motivation behind this Greek expedition? It must have been driven by the knowledge of China's abundant resources, coming for trade. People living along the Black Sea coast had also visited the land of Issedore, and the Issedore map corresponded to the region of modern Xinjiang. Therefore, it is clear that both the Greeks and the people near the Black Sea traveled far to the western borders of China to obtain Chinese silk and Siberian furs. Thus, over a long period of trade with the Chinese, Greek art also spread to China. However, Greek-style art that spread to the northern route of the Tian Shan Mountains via the Caspian Sea likely extended to the Mongolian region north of the Great Wall.
In addition to connecting with China via the northern route across the Caspian Sea, the Greeks could also reach China through the southern route across Persia. That is, the Greeks originally planned to travel from Anatolia through Mesopotamia and Persia to the central part of Asia. However, this route was not only geographically treacherous but also difficult to pass due to the fierce resistance and numerous enemies in Persia. According to ancient Greek legends, the Amazons, a female army ruled by a queen, roamed the region from the Caucasus to Anatolia. They were fond of battle and often hindered the east-west trade of the Greeks. And this Amazon legend was definitely not baseless. It was not until the birth of Alexander the Great that obstacles to east-west trade were cleared. Indeed, Alexander the Great's Persian campaign had a great impact on the history of east-west trade and the eastward spread of Greek art.
Examining the route of Alexander the Great's campaign, he reached the upper reaches of the Syr Darya in modern Central Asia and crossed the Hindu Kush Mountains to reach the Panjab in northern India. The places Alexander the Great passed through all established Greek-style commercial ports and markets, the most famous of which were Alexandria at the mouth of the Nile, Alexandria at the mouths of the Tigris and Euphrates, Alexandria on the upper reaches of the Syr Darya, Alexandria on the banks of the Oxus and Hermadriel, Alexandria on the upper reaches of the Indus, and Petra at the mouth of the Indus. There were many others. Since Alexander the Great's campaign, many such commercial centers were established, attracting many Greeks to settle there, turning them into hubs of Greek commerce and the spread of Greek culture. At the same time, Greek-style art also spread to China via this southern route across Persia, though it likely reached the southern region of the Great Wall.
Thus, while the Greeks reached the Western Regions via both the northern route across the Caspian Sea and the southern route across Persia, the Chinese were also reaching the Western Regions at this time. As a result, direct trade between them began, and east-west communication became frequent. The Chinese campaign in the Western Regions, such as the dispatch of envoys to the Western Regions by Emperor Wu of Han, was particularly famous. That is, Emperor Wu dispatched envoys to the Western Regions to connect with Da Yuezhi and subdue the Xiongnu. At that time, he sent an envoy to Da Yuezhi in modern Central Asia. The person in charge of this mission was Zhang Qian. In 138 BC, he left with over a hundred companions, but was captured by the Xiongnu on the way and held captive for eleven years before finally escaping to Da Yuezhi. However, at that time, Da Yuezhi had already taken over the fertile lands along the Amu Darya, living in great comfort, and were also very far from the Han border, unwilling to align with the Han to fight against the Xiongnu. Therefore, Zhang Qian's arduous journey ultimately failed to achieve its goal.
Zhang Qian stayed in Da Yuezhi for about a year, planning to return home along the Kunlun Mountains, but was again captured by the Xiongnu and held captive for another year and a half. He only managed to escape back home during the internal turmoil of the Xiongnu, in 126 BC. From the time of his departure, he had spent over thirteen years in the Western Regions.