A Century of Chinese Philosophy Classics: The New Culture Movement Era Volume

Author: Tu Weiming Tang Yijie
Publisher:
Publish Date: 1998-09-01
Features: The May Fourth Movement was an era that needed stars of thought and produced stars. Whether it was Cai Yuanpei and Hu Shi representing liberalism, Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao representing socialism, or Liang Shuming and Zhang Junmai representing conservatism, or Ouyang Jingwu and Tai Xu representing Buddhism, all of them shone brilliantly.
Excerpt: The Emergence of Ethical Thought in the Tang, Yu, and Three Dynasties The Basic Principles of Ethical Thought The foundation of our humanities, based on psychology, lies in the custom of worshipping heaven. Ethical thought, on the other hand, developed from the patriarchal system and has been consistent. From this, the concept of revering heaven and fearing destiny was established. The concept of heaven Five thousand years ago, our ancestors came from the west and settled along the Yellow River, building houses and farming, competing with the harsh climate, with no time to spare. Bathed in the blessings of rain and dew, and averted from the disasters of floods and droughts, they sought their origins in the vast sky. They believed it to be the supreme divine spirit who oversaw and rewarded or punished the people. As it evolved into an abstract concept, it was no longer seen as a personified deity but rather as the universal principle of nature. Thus, its recurring phenomena were revealed as standards for human behavior. It was believed that if one understood the principle of heaven, all human affairs could be deduced from it. This was the extension of religious reverence for nature into a cosmology. The principle of heaven The ancient Chinese cosmology had two explanations: one explained it in terms of dynamics, known as the yin-yang theory of dual qi; the other explained it in terms of matter, known as the five elements theory. These two theories gradually evolved and both took the movement of the universe as their object: the former evolved from the two principles to the four images, and from the four images to the eight trigrams, assuming that the eight trigrams were the original symbols, with all phenomena being the result of their interaction. Thus, the law of change in phenomena was established and applied to human affairs. The latter considered the five elements as the fundamental substances that formed the world, with properties of mutual generation and mutual restraint. The various phenomena of the world, based on similarities and differences in their properties, had causal relationships, so one could deduce one from another. Future phenomena could also be predicted. Although the basic arguments of the two theories differed, their fundamental principle of the same rules governing heaven and human affairs was in perfect harmony. This was because the ancient Chinese, without deeply studying the nature of heaven, took assumed concepts and applied them to practical phenomena. This is why the ancient Chinese discourse on heaven differed from that of Western religious thinkers and was particularly representative of the highest ethical concepts. The belief in heaven Heaven has a manifest way, so humans have the obligation to follow it, which is an undeniable belief, known as following the principles of heaven. Such beliefs were passed down through generations and gradually became part of nature. For example, in the Book of Documents, the terms used by the ruler and the subjects always involved heaven, not just as a rhetorical habit but also as an unconscious expression of their innate concepts. The authority of heaven The ancient Chinese observed heaven and wondered about its authority. The Book of Changes says: "The hard and the soft rub against each other, stirred by thunder and rain, nourished by wind and dew. The sun and moon revolve, alternating between cold and heat. The (qian) principle gives birth to males, and the (kun) principle gives birth to females. The knows the great beginning, and the shapes the things." It is said that heaven gives birth to and receives, organizes, and regulates all things, all of which are not unconscious actions but are closely aligned with morality. By observing its great benefits to humanity, one can understand this. The way humans benefit and enrich life is based on heaven, so one must fear the destiny of heaven and follow the way of heaven. To fear and follow it, heaven bestows blessings. For example, timely (fēngyǔ) and bountiful harvests, with joy and celebration passing down to future generations. Those who abuse heaven and defy it will face various calamities, such as unfavorable signs in the sun and moon, changes in mountains and valleys, as heaven warns them. If they still defy it, heaven will punish them. These are glimpses of the nature of heaven as seen in the Book of Songs and the Book of Documents. The order of heaven The essence of heaven is morality, and its manifestation in things is order. Therefore, below the heaven are the earth deities, followed by the gods of the sun, moon, stars, mountains, rivers, forests, and lakes, down to the cats and tigers, all governed by the supreme god. This is a model for the order of the human world. The Book of Changes says: "Heaven is high and the earth is low; the and the are established. The high and the low are arranged, and the noble and the humble are positioned." This is the meaning. Applying the great order of nature to human society, anything that does not conform to order cannot be considered moral. The Book of Changes also says: "After heaven and earth came into being, there were all things. After all things came into being, there were men. After men came being, there were husbands and wives. After husbands and wives came being, there were fathers and sons. After fathers and sons came being, there were rulers and subjects. After rulers and subjects came being, there was the distinction of high and low, and then rites and morality were established." This speaks of understanding the importance of order by following the natural development of things. Emphasizing order, therefore, makes the only function of morality being the middle. The middle is to be appropriately positioned, without excess or deficiency, in relation to time and place. This is the foundation of morality. And the patriarchal system helps to achieve this.