Introduction to Western Journalism

Author: Li Liangrong
Publisher:
Publishing Date: July 1, 2003
Features: In the historical process of establishing a liberal press system in capitalist countries in the West, Jefferson made the greatest contribution and had the most significant impact. Thomas Jefferson was the drafter of the U.S. Declaration of Independence and served as the third and fourth President of the United States (1801–1809). He was a loyal adherent and great practitioner of the general liberal theory established by European thinkers in the 17th century. He not only fought for the passage of the U.S. Constitution's amendments in Congress but also used his presidential power to ensure the establishment of a liberal press system. In a letter to his friend Carrington in 1787, Jefferson wrote: "The will of the people is the only foundation of government; therefore, it is our first objective to preserve this right. If I were to decide between a government without newspapers and newspapers without a government, I would without hesitation give an immediate answer: I would rather have the latter." Jefferson's high regard for newspapers and press freedom stemmed from his firm belief. He believed that people could only discover truth by using newspapers to freely exchange ideas, and that differences among people could be clarified through free discussion. Only by providing freedom of the press and freedom of speech could people effectively supervise the government, and the government could hear the opinions of the people. Moreover, press freedom was the greatest guarantee for the other freedoms and safety of the people. "Where press freedom prevails, and where everyone can read the newspapers, everything is safe."
What is even more valuable is that during his presidency, it was the period of partisan newspapers in what the U.S. press history called the "Dark Ages." Federalists and Democrats used their newspapers to attack each other, spread rumors, slander, abuse, and even resort to physical fights. As a representative of the Democratic Party, Jefferson became the primary target of Federalist newspaper attacks and suffered greatly. At times, he was heartbroken, and at other times, he felt disheartened. He once wrote angrily: "Newspapers have become so arbitrary and dishonest that they have completely lost people's trust." Despite this, he still firmly believed in the principles of a liberal press system and continued to defend press freedom. After more than 300 years of arduous exploration and struggle, by the late 18th and early 19th centuries, major capitalist countries in the West had basically established a liberal press system in legal form, making it a part of the capitalist political system and one of its fundamental markers. This reflected the progressiveness of the rising bourgeoisie. As Lenin said: "The slogan of press freedom became a great slogan in the world from the late Middle Ages to the 19th century. Why? Because it reflected the progressiveness of the bourgeoisie, that is, it reflected the bourgeoisie's struggle against the clergy, kings, feudal lords, and landlords."
5. Revealing the essence of a series of phenomena in their background helps the audience understand the substance of the issue. For a period of time, U.S. diplomacy in Asia encountered repeated setbacks. In a report titled "Asian Tigers Show Political Strength" published by the U.S. "Los Angeles Times" on June 3, 1994, the reporter listed how China, Singapore, Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam, and other countries clashed with the U.S. on a series of principles, either forcing the U.S. to retreat or putting the U.S. in an awkward position. What does this indicate? The reporter believed that the growing strength of Asian countries gave them confidence. Another U.S. newspaper, the "Baltimore Sun" (May 8, 1994), pointed out incisively that cultural conflicts, stemming from the U.S.'s insistence on individualism and personal freedom, forced Asian countries to accept it, leading to strong resistance from these countries. Meanwhile, Orientals adhered to Confucian-based collectivism and emphasized social stability. They pointed out the essence of the conflict between the U.S. and Asian countries from different perspectives. In explanatory journalism, skilled writing techniques are required. Explanatory journalism is generally long, and in addition to the attractive subject matter, effort must be spent on writing techniques to make readers want to continue reading and finish the article in one go; after reading the entire piece, readers should accept the conclusions drawn by the author.
II. Writing Techniques for Explanatory Journalism
To enhance the readability and reliability of explanatory journalism, Western journalists generally adopt the following writing techniques:
1. Interwoven Narrative and Commentary
Explanatory journalism often contains a large amount of material (both newly occurring news events and background information), as well as the author's analysis and commentary. In terms of writing style, it adopts an interwoven approach of narrative and commentary. This interwoven narrative is not simply adding opinions to examples like oil and water separating; rather, it combines materials and opinions seamlessly.
"For example, recent conflicts between the East and the West have revealed a metaphorical rift in the Pacific region—the fault line between Western and Eastern civilizations. Eastern civilization is primarily Confucian." ("U.S. and Asia: Political and Cultural Conflict," U.S. "Baltimore Sun," May 8, 1994).
"The U.S. dollar fell below 100 yen in Tokyo this morning, becoming a humiliating symbol reminding people that economically, the U.S. has become like other countries." ("The Dollar's Fall Reflects Increasing U.S. Dependence on Others," U.S. "Baltimore Sun," June 28, 1994).
These sentences are both factual accounts and the author's commentary, or the first sentence is a factual account, and the next is the author's commentary, immediately pointing out the essence of the issue, making readers "gobble up" both facts and commentary without separating them.
2. Extensive Use of Expert Opinions to Enhance Persuasiveness
In explanatory journalism, it is rare to find examples without citing expert opinions. Citing expert opinions has become a key element of writing in explanatory journalism, especially when the news reaches a critical point, often using the remarks of an expert as a conclusion, serving as a masterstroke.
In April and May 1994, the U.S. and North Korea clashed fiercely over inspections, with North Korea announcing its immediate withdrawal from the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. The U.S. was shaken. U.S. newspapers continuously revealed the U.S.'s plan to impose sanctions on North Korea, but the plan was. The "Washington Post" published "Sanctions on North Korea May Bring Irony Risks" (June 4). The article analyzed why sanctions were not immediately imposed—North Korea might respond in kind and simply develop nuclear weapons, leaving the U.S. in an even more difficult position. The author then wrote: "A U.S. official said this risk is the main reason for not taking further action." This quote is both a report and the author's intended viewpoint, a classic example of "letting the other person's mouth say what you want to say." Such examples are common in explanatory journalism.
3. Extensive Use of Literary Techniques to Report on the Scene
Using rhetorical devices like metaphors and contrasts makes explanatory journalism more engaging.
Since the 1990s, Vietnam's economy has developed rapidly, but this has been accompanied by a sharp population increase. The "New York Times" published "Overpopulated Vietnam Will Face Great Disasters" on May 8, 1994, to analyze the reasons for Vietnam's population explosion. The article begins: "Streets are filled with vendors, beggars, and motorbikes. Almost every household has a large number of children, and they are always welcoming relatives who come to seek refuge. Even now, it has become difficult to store an urn for the deceased in a temple." In just a few words, the article vividly depicts the social problems caused by population growth.
"Today, Mandela, who took office as President of South Africa, is caught between the wealth of the 10th world and the poverty of the 3rd world. This reflects the north-south conflict within a single country." ("Smile, South Africa," British "Guardian," May 10, 1994).
The article immediately and vividly clarifies the contradictions faced by Mandela as President.
Explanatory journalism writing, like pure news reporting, follows a relatively strict format, allowing journalists to write freely. However, this actually places higher demands on the writing skills of journalists. Accuracy and conciseness are general requirements for news language in Western countries. News language, following these two requirements, has evolved into many techniques.
First, use common vocabulary as much as possible. The Associated Press "Writing Handbook" requires journalists: "Use common vocabulary as much as possible. Remember, the work of the Associated Press is not to expand readers' vocabulary. If you must use words that readers may not be familiar with, you must explain them." Some American professors and newspaper editors, after investigation, concluded that the average vocabulary of American readers is about 3,000 to 5,000 words. Generally, major Western news agencies and newspapers have common vocabulary lists. New journalists must study them carefully when they join the organization.
Second, use adverbs and adjectives cautiously. Because adjectives and adverbs, as modifiers of nouns and verbs, often carry strong emotional colors and tendencies. In Western journalism writing books, authors often warn beginners: "Adjectives can fool people." "Too many adjectives are dangerous." The famous American writer Mark Twain influenced young people of that era with his concise and sharp language style. When commenting on the articles of young students at the Buffalo Women's College, he told them: "This shows that the article has avoided adjectives and superlative adjectives, making it attractive. By the way, anyone who crosses out a few more adjectives in their manuscript will improve their article." American university journalism textbooks are even more direct in educating future journalists: "Adjectives are often words with ulterior motives. Sometimes they imply the reporter's opinion, which is not allowed in news reporting." "Writers often use adjectives to add color to the news, which is a wrong practice."
Third, choose precise and powerful verbs. Corresponding to the cautious use of adjectives and adverbs, Western news media emphasize the use of verbs—precise and powerful verbs. For example, a bank clerk named Jones jumped from the fifth floor of his dormitory and committed suicide. However, when the reporter arrived at the scene, police, forensic examiners, or medical examiners were reluctant to make a definitive identification, as it was possible that he had been pushed down. At this point, the choice of verbs in the report is very important. If the reporter writes "Jones jumped from the fifth floor and died," the word "jump" implies suicide. But if the investigation later reveals that he was murdered, the report will be inaccurate. If the reporter writes "Jones was pushed down from the fifth floor and died," the deceased's family will demand that the police arrest the murderer based on this report. The key word in this news story is the verb; the reporter cannot avoid it. United Press International journalists skillfully used a neutral word: "fell." The report was written as follows: "Eli M. Black, chairman and CEO of United Brands, fell from the 44th floor of the Pan Am Building yesterday and died. Police said it was apparently suicide." Moreover, choosing a precise and powerful verb makes the news more vivid and gives it a sense of the scene. Like the previously cited example of Ford's assassination, the entire article contains almost no adjectives, with each sentence describing the actions of the relevant people with a single verb, presenting the scene on the spot.
Fourth, be specific, not abstract. News reports provide facts, and facts require specificity. Therefore, in news reporting, it is best to use as little abstract language as possible to summarize facts and as much concrete language as possible to present facts.
See Reuters' report "U.S. Proposal Defeated, China to Enter the United Nations":
"[Reuters United Nations, October 25, 1971] Tonight, representatives of the United Nations defeated the U.S.'s efforts to keep Taiwan's seat in the United Nations, paving the way for Beijing to enter. The representatives laughed loudly in the corridors, sang, laughed, shouted, slammed tables, and some even danced. Here, the author uses a series of verbs to depict the scene and atmosphere on the spot, making readers feel as if they are there. If a cliché like 'representatives celebrated their victory with joy' were used, the entire message would become dull."
Fifth, use negative statements as little as possible, or not at all, and convert negative sentences into affirmative sentences; use the passive voice as little as possible, and convert the passive voice into the active voice.