Identification of blue and white porcelain

Author: Zhang Puseng/ Country:
Publisher:
Publishing Time: 2002-12-01
Features: Chapter 4 - The Prosperity of Blue and White Porcelain in the Ming and Qing Dynasties - Abstract The blue and white porcelain of the Ming and Qing dynasties was a prosperous period in the history of Chinese blue and white porcelain, developing along two lines: imperial kilns and folk kilns. The imperial kiln style was rigorous, while the folk kiln style was bold and unrestrained. The Yongle and Xuande reigns of the Ming Dynasty were a peak for blue and white porcelain, known for its exquisite craftsmanship. The Kangxi reign of the Qing Dynasty pushed blue and white porcelain to its pinnacle with fine techniques and five-color blue and white designs. After the Qianlong reign, it gradually declined, losing its advantage to famille rose porcelain. Keywords Blue and White Porcelain Imperial Kiln Folk Kiln Export Imperial and Folk Kilns In this book, the imperial kiln refers specifically to the products fired by the Jingdezhen Imperial Kiln Factory during the Ming and Qing dynasties.
(1) The Establishment of the Imperial Kiln Factory
Since the Ming Dynasty, official and folk records have documented different accounts of when the imperial kiln factory was first established. Based on these records, three different viewpoints have emerged regarding the establishment of the imperial kiln factory.
1. The Hongwu 2nd Year (1369) Theory
The opening section of Qing Lanpu's Jingdezhen Ceramic Records states: "In the second year of Hongwu, the Imperial Kiln Factory was established on Zhushan in Jingdezhen, with officials supervising the production of porcelain for delivery to the capital." Based on materials unearthed from the imperial kiln factory in recent years, we believe this theory is more credible. In September 1990, during the construction of steps on the eastern slope of Zhushan in Jingdezhen, the Jingdezhen Ceramic Research Institute discovered early Ming Dynasty relics at a depth of five meters. These included fragments of "official" (storage jars), architectural components, glazed tiles, large pieces of blue and white and underglaze red porcelain, and a large porcelain tile inscribed with "Fuliang County Zhao Wanchu Supervising the Construction" in iron characters. The tile, measuring 38 cm in length and 27.5 cm in width, bore inscriptions on the upper half: "Shouzi No. 3, Craftsman Wang Shiming, Glaze Pourer Fan Daoming, Fire Control Fang Nan, Head Craftsman Pan Cheng, Foreman Wu Changxiu, Supervising Official Fuliang County Zhao Wanchu, Constructed by Zhou Cheng, Linked to the Department." The 21st year of the Kangxi reign, Fuliang County Gazetteer, Volume 5, "Official System - Hongwu County," mentions Zhao Wanchu. Zhao Wanchu was from Xianyang, Shaanxi, and his tenure as county likely fell in the early years of the Hongwu reign. The fragments of storage jars and inscribed porcelain pieces prove that the imperial kiln was established in the early years of the Hongwu reign.
2. The Hongwu 26th Year (1393) Theory
The Great Ming Imperial Code, Volume 194, records that the Ming court issued an edict in the 26th year of the Hongwu reign (1393): "For the production of ceremonial vessels and other items, it is necessary to determine the design and calculate labor and materials. If the quantity is large, mobilize craftsmen to the capital to set up kilns and commence work; if the quantity is small, transfer the order to the Jiu and Chu prefectures for production." The Jiu prefecture refers to Jingdezhen in Jiangxi, while the Chu prefecture refers to Longquan kiln in Chuzhou, Zhejiang. This theory, based on the phrase "mobilize craftsmen to the capital to set up kilns and commence work," suggests that the imperial kiln was established in the 26th year of the Hongwu reign (1393). In spring 1928, Mr. Liu Dunzhen visited the southern suburbs of Nanjing near Zhonghua Gate and identified the area as the site of the so-called Jubaoshan Imperial Kiln. In May 1959, the Nanjing Museum conducted excavations, uncovering kiln sites and dragon-patterned glazed tiles, but no fine porcelain was found, unlike the Nanjing Ming Imperial Palace site. The glazed tiles unearthed from the Jubaoshan kiln site are similar to those found at the Ming Imperial Palace and the Bao'en Temple Pagoda. Therefore, we believe the "Jubaoshan Imperial Kiln" was established for the specialized production of large quantities of glazed architectural components. The fine Ming porcelain unearthed from the Ming Imperial Palace before the 26th year of the Hongwu reign was likely produced in Jiu Prefecture.
3. The Hongwu 35th Year (1402, the 4th Year of the Jianwen Reign) Theory
Wang Jia's continuation of the Jiangxi Provincial Great@Ceramic Book during the Wanli reign and Wang Ji's Compendium of Things (Volume 28) both record that the Jingdezhen Imperial Kiln Factory began production in the 35th year of the Hongwu reign (1402). This theory suggests that the court officially established the imperial kiln factory in Jingdezhen in the 35th year of the Hongwu reign (1402). The Ming Dynasty Imperial Kiln Factory in Jingdezhen was generally referred to as the imperial kiln.
(2) The Definition of the Imperial Kiln
Ming Dynasty imperial kilns were divided into two types: imperial-ordered and Ministry-ordered. Imperial-ordered porcelain referred to items for imperial use, delivered to the capital on schedule. Ministry (Ministry of Works)-ordered porcelain was primarily used as gifts, with no delivery schedule. After the Jiajing reign, "official kilns producing Ministry-ordered porcelain for folk kilns." Some imperial-ordered porcelain production tasks were assigned to folk kilns. The second function of Ministry-ordered porcelain was compensation. If folk kilns produced damaged porcelain, they had to compensate by purchasing Ministry-ordered porcelain from the imperial kiln to replace the imperial-ordered porcelain. This was a method of exploiting the folk kilns. In the 19th year of the Wanli reign, an order was placed for 159,000 pieces, which was later increased by 80,000 (actually the last order). By the end of the 38th year, the work was finally completed. The Ministry of Works repeatedly requested the suspension of porcelain production in Jiangxi for several years to alleviate the people's suffering, but the response was "not to comply." Thus, although the imperial kiln itself did not stop production at this time, its strength had declined. By the Tianqi reign, few imperial porcelain bearing the mark "Made in the Great Ming Tianqi Reign" were seen.
Qing Dynasty imperial kilns were divided into imperial kilns, Ministry-ordered kilns, and kilns for the Prince and High Officials. There was also a special case: in the fine porcelain of the Ming and Qing dynasties, some folk kilns produced imitations of Song Dynasty porcelain, known as "" (ancient imperial vessels), and imitations of Han Dynasty porcelain, called "()" (imperial vessels), with exquisite and smooth materials. Like the porcelain from the imperial kiln factory, they could be considered imperial kiln porcelain and were referred to as imperial vessels in the market. In the imperial porcelain collection of the Nanjing Museum (including the collection of the former Imperial Palace in Beijing), such types were found, even with sand bases. Therefore, from the perspective of artifacts, this record is correct.
From the above descriptions of the imperial kiln factory and imperial kiln porcelain, it can be seen that imperial kiln porcelain does not refer exclusively to porcelain with imperial reign marks but can be defined as follows:
1. Exquisite and meticulously crafted items produced by the imperial kiln factory ordered by the court, mostly bearing the reign marks of the ruling dynasty since the Yongle reign of the Ming Dynasty.
2. Items ordered by the court from folk kilns, without marks.
3. Items ordered by Qing Dynasty princes and high officials. For example, the "Xing You Heng Tang" mark on Daoguang-era porcelain, which was used exclusively by the emperor and nobility, should also be classified as imperial kiln porcelain.
4. High-quality items from folk kilns that were presented to the court as samples and stored in the palace, with the imperial kiln ordered to replicate them, without imperial reign marks. Any item that meets one of these criteria is considered imperial kiln porcelain, with the second and fourth categories being markless imperial kiln porcelain.
(3) The Imperial Kiln and the Prosperity of Chinese Blue and White Porcelain
Except for Jingdezhen, the major kiln sites in other parts of the country either completely ceased production or declined during the Ming Dynasty, leading to the situation in Jingdezhen where "craftsmen came from all directions, and porcelain went everywhere." At this time, the court had very broad and strict requirements for blue and white porcelain. The Great Ming Imperial Code records, "Ceremonial vessels are all made of porcelain," and clearly specifies the colors of porcelain for various ceremonies. The Qing Dynasty inherited this tradition, and the Four Treasuries Collection - Imperially Commissioned Pattern of Imperial Ritual Vessels states: "The Altar of Heaven uses blue and white porcelain, while the Altar of Earth and the Altar of Earthly Powers use yellow." It also specifies the forms and patterns of ceremonial vessels, with very strict requirements.
The imperial kiln factory in the Ming Dynasty conducted a secondary selection for the porcelain it produced. After firing, the porcelain underwent a first selection, then was transported to the imperial kiln factory on Zhushan for a second selection. Especially in the early and mid-Ming Dynasty, (unqualified) items were definitely broken. In the Yongle and Xuande layers of the imperial kiln factory site, fragments of porcelain slightly deformed were unearthed. During a visit to the Jingdezhen Imperial Kiln Factory Archaeological Institute, the author saw two blue and white porcelain plates with cloud and dragon patterns, glued together from fragments of the Chenghua layer. One was complete, while the other had a small hole the size of a peanut at the bottom. Thanks to Mr. Liu Xinyuan and Mr. Bai Kun, it was explained that these were deliberately broken marks, first pierced with a pointed object, then shattered into pieces. The reason for breaking them was that one plate had a dragon with four claws, while the other had one of the dragon's eyes unpainted. Such strict selection ensured the continuous improvement of imperial kiln quality. It is recorded that during the Jiajing reign, the production of each piece of porcelain cost as much as one or two taels of silver, which also meant great hardship for the kiln workers.