Essentials of Ancient Chinese Culture

Author: Liu Hongren / Country:
Publisher:
Publishing Date: 2003-01-01
Features: [Excerpt:] The ancient Chinese wore various types of ornaments, and they changed with the times. It is not possible to list them all here. When reading ancient works, if we encounter descriptions of ornaments, in addition to knowing what they are and their general shape, we should also pay attention to the fact that, like clothing, ornaments serve both practical purposes and functions of beautification and symbolizing social status.
Regarding food and utensils, it has been said that Chinese culture is a "food culture." This statement may be one-sided and extreme, but it does reveal a fact: the role of "eating" in the lives of Chinese people is truly unparalleled. Our ancestors were long aware of the importance of "eating." The Book of Rites states: "Food and sex are the great desires of human beings." Mencius also says: "Food and sex are natural inclinations." As for the ancient proverb "The people regard food as heaven," it is well-known to all. Indeed, the meticulousness of Chinese cuisine and the excellence of its cooking techniques have long been renowned worldwide. Chinese people love to eat, can eat, and know how to eat, which is also universally recognized. Mr. Lin Yutang once said that the Chinese were "the only animals on earth that eat everything" and "we eat everything on earth." This is entirely true. Some say that the people of Guangdong can eat almost anything that flies in the sky (except for airplanes and rockets), runs on the ground (except for cars and tanks), and swims in the water (except for steamships and yachts), making them delicious dishes. Although this is a bit exaggerated, it does reflect the fact that the Chinese are indeed not picky eaters. Indeed, the variety and diversity of Chinese food are unparalleled in the world. For thousands of years, the art of eating has been continuously refined, becoming an important part of the splendid culture of our ancient civilization. In the excellent literary works of ancient China, it is common to find records and descriptions of food. Below, we will briefly introduce staple foods, meat, wine and sugar, as well as food utensils.
1. Staple Foods
Since entering the agricultural society, China has primarily relied on grain crops as staple foods. Therefore, since the Zhou and Qin dynasties, there have been many records of grains in poetry and literature. Grain crops are collectively referred to as "five grains" or "six grains." As for the varieties included in the "five grains," there have been differing views throughout history. The most credible explanation is: millet, broomcorn, wheat, beans, and flax. The "six grains" include rice as an additional item. Flax is also considered a grain because its seeds can also be used for sustenance. Millet is what is known as "millet" in northern China today, also called "yellow rice," named for its yellow color and sticky texture, and also referred to as "yellow glutinous rice." Broomcorn is what is known as "broomcorn" in northern China today; after removing the husk, it becomes "millet." Broomcorn is drought-resistant, and in the era of "relying on the weather for farming," it was the most suitable grain crop. Therefore, for a long time, it was the most important grain in China and was regarded as the "leader of the five grains." The ancient Chinese revered broomcorn as the grain god and combined it with the shè (earth god) to form the term shèjì (society and grain), which was also used as a name for the country. This shows the importance of broomcorn in ancient times. In ancient times, millet and broomcorn were often mentioned together, as in the Book of Songs (Odes of Bin): "Millet and broomcorn are abundant." This shows the important role of millet in people's lives. In fact, millet and broomcorn are originally plants of the same family. Bencao Gangmu (Compendium of Materia Medica) states: "Broomcorn and millet are of the same species but of two types: sticky millet and non-sticky broomcorn. Broomcorn can be used to make rice, while millet can be used to make wine." Since millet is sticky and soft, it was considered a high-quality and exquisite grain in ancient times and was often used during festivals or to entertain guests. The Analects (Microcosm of the Master) records that when Zilu encountered an elderly man (a recluse), "(the elderly man) invited Zilu to stay overnight and killed a chicken to make millet for him to eat." It can be imagined that this meal must have been quite good. In ancient times, chariots had only one yoke, and the horse pulling the yoke was called "fúma" (service horse), while the two horses on the sides were called "cān." The ancient Chinese favored the left side, so if a horse needed to be taken off for another use, the left cān was released, showing respect for others. Zuo Zhuan (Zuo’s Commentary) states: "The duke sent Yang Chufu (a minister of Jin) to pursue him, and when he reached the river, he was already in the boat. He released the left cān to present it to Mengmíng (a minister of Qin) as a gift." Han Feizi (Han Feizi’s Outer Storehouse) states: "(Jin Wen Gong) released the left cān and made an alliance by the river." Now let’s talk about the main components of a chariot. The body of the chariot is called "yú." Every chariot must have a yú, so yú can also be used to refer to the chariot in general. Laozi states: "Even though there are boats and chariots, there is nothing to ride." The yú had wooden boards or railings on both sides for people to lean on, called "qí." In front of the yú was a half-frame wooden beam for people to hold or lean on, called "shì" (also written as "shì"). If one wanted to show respect to others during the journey, they would hold the shì and bow their heads. This gesture of respect was also called "shì." For example, The Book of Rites states: "Confucius passed by the side of Mount Tai and heard a woman crying at a tomb with great sorrow. The master held the shì and listened to her." Huangfu Shi’s High Officials’ Biography states: "(Duan Ganmu, a recluse from Jin) avoided the visit of Wei Wen Hou by climbing over the wall. The duke treated him with the courtesy of a guest and, when passing by his gate, held the shì." Records of the Grand Historian (Biography of Confucius) also states: "Wei Hou accepted Zixia’s Confucian teachings and hosted Duan Ganmu. When passing by his gate, he never failed to hold the shì." Holding the shì was a gesture of respect to others, so not holding it was a sign of disrespect. However, "chariots for warfare do not hold the shì" (The Book of Rites). This was likely because the soldiers in the chariots wore helmets and it was inconvenient to bow their heads in respect. The ancient Chinese got onto chariots from the back, and there was a gap in the horizontal board or railings at the back of the yú, which served as the entry point. A rope was tied to the body of the chariot to serve as a handhold when getting on, called "suí." The Analects (Village Party) states: "When getting onto a chariot, Confucius must stand upright and hold the suí." Zhuangzi (Letting the King Go) states that the prince of Yue, Zǐsǒu, refused to become a king and hid in a cave in the southern mountains. The Yue people (smoked him with mugwort) and sent him in the king’s chariot. The prince of Yue, Zǐsǒu, reached out and held the suí to get onto the chariot, shouting to the sky: "Lord! Lord! Why must you abandon me?" The yoke is the wooden beam used to pull the chariot. Its front end is connected to the "héng" or "è" (collar) that fits on the neck of the animal, and its rear end is connected to the axle. According to ancient records, the yoke comes in two types: single-yoke and double-yoke. The single-yoke is a single curved piece, also called "liàng," suitable for small chariots (horse-drawn). The double-yoke consists of two straight pieces placed on both sides of the animal, suitable for large chariots (ox-drawn). However, archaeological discoveries since the liberation show that ancient chariots used for carrying people were mostly straight, not curved; while chariots from the Han Dynasty were complex in structure, with one horse as the norm and double-yokes. Ancient emperors, when hunting or camping, would link chariots together to form a camp, with the entrances formed by two chariots facing each other with their yokes, creating a "gate," called "yuánmén." The term "chariot palace yuánmén" for the emperors’ travel is derived from this. "Yuánmén" is also used to refer to military camp gates. Records of the Grand Historian (Biography of Xiang Yu) states: "Xiang Yu summoned the generals of the feudal lords, and none dared to look up as they entered the yuánmén and knelt forward." Later, the official residences of high-ranking local officials were also called "yuánmén." A horizontal beam called "è" (also written as "è") was tied to the front end of the yoke, used to fit on the animal’s neck to pull the chariot. "è" and "héng" (horizontal) are synonyms in terms of function. "è" is slightly shaped like a "person" and is used for large chariots (ox-drawn), while "héng" is a horizontal beam connected to the yoke, used for small chariots (horse-drawn), with the "è" placed below and attached to the neck of the horse. Since "héng" and "è" serve the same purpose and are often combined into one when used for small chariots, they are often referred to as "héngè." Zhuangzi (Horse’s Hoof) states: "They added the héng and è, and aligned them with the horse’s brow." The pins connecting the yoke and the héngè are called "gǔn" (ní) and "guì" (yuè). In terms of function, "gǔn" is used for large chariots (ox-drawn), while "guì" is used for small chariots (horse-drawn). The Analects (Politics) states: "A large chariot without gǔn and a small chariot without guì—how can they move?" The outer frame of the wheel is called "wǎng." In ancient times, wheels were made of wood, and the wǎng was the outermost round wooden part of the wheel. Its function is similar to the tires of modern cars or bicycles. The wooden disc in the center of the wheel with a hole is called "gǔ" (gǔ). The hole is used to pass the axle through. "Wǎng" and "gǔ" are two concentric circles, connected by spokes, forming the wheel. Laozi (Chapter 11) states: "Thirty spokes all gather around one hub." A spoke is a wooden strip with one end connected to the wǎng and the other to the gǔ. All the spokes converge toward the hub, called "fúcuì" (also written as "fúcòu"). Later, "fúcuì" was extended to mean gathering from all directions. Records of the Grand Historian (Biography of Shusun Tong) states: "The ruler is above, and the laws are complete below. If everyone fulfills their duties, the four directions will gather, how could anyone dare to rebel?" Dong Fangshuo’s Answering the Difficulties of a Guest states: "The vastness of heaven and earth, the multitude of scholars and commoners, all striving to contribute, gathering from all directions in countless numbers." The axle is a horizontal beam that supports the yú and has wheels attached to both ends. The ends of the axle extend outside the gǔ, and these exposed parts are protected by a metal tube called "zhì" (also written as "ruì," pronounced wèi). Records of the Grand Historian (Biography of Tian Dan) states: "The army marched swiftly and pacified Qi, while Tian Dan fled to Anping, ordering his relatives to cut off the ends of their chariot axles and fit them with iron cages. Later, when the army attacked Anping, the city fell, and the Qi people fled, competing for the road, their chariots broke due to the rough terrain, and they were captured by the. Only Tian Dan’s relatives, thanks to the iron cages, managed to escape eastward and take refuge in Jimo." Pei Xi’s Collected Explanations quotes Xu Guang as saying: "The zhì is the head of the chariot axle, pronounced wèi." To prevent the wheels from falling off during travel, the ancient Chinese drilled holes in the zhì and inserted a pin about three to four inches long to fix the wheel. This pin is called "xiá" (also written as "qiān" or "zhǎ"). The xiá is made of bronze or iron, flat or rectangular, and is a very important part of the chariot. Without the xiá, the chariot cannot move or would be very dangerous. Huainanzi (Human World Training) states: "The reason why a chariot can travel a thousand miles is because of the three-inch xiá." KongCongzi (Volume 1) states: "Like carrying a chariot without a xiá to the edge of a thousand-foot cliff, it would be difficult to avoid collapse." Records of the Han Dynasty (Biography of Chen Zun) states that Chen Zun loved wine and hospitality. "Whenever he drank heavily, guests filled the hall, and he would close the door, take the chariot xiá and throw it into the well. Even in emergencies, he could not leave." Later, "throwing the xiá" became a literary allusion to a host’s warm hospitality. Luo Binwang’s Imperial Capital Poem states: "Lu Jia divided gold to entertain guests, and Chen Zun threw the xiá to keep the guests." Gao Shi’s Accompanying Dou Shi’s Boating in Yun Pool states: "When in high spirits, it is appropriate to throw the xiá; when inviting joy, do not avoid the noble horse." Because the xiá controls the wheel, it later extended to mean management and jurisdiction, such as "jurisdiction," "direct jurisdiction," and "overall jurisdiction."。 is not a part of the chariot but a wooden block used to stop the wheel from turning when parking. Before starting the journey, this wooden block had to be moved away, so setting off was called "fā rèn." Qu Yuan’s Li Sao states: "In the morning, I set off from Cangwu, and by evening, I reached Xianpu." This extended to mean that the beginning of something is also called "fā rèn." Generally, the yú had a movable round canopy, supported by a single wooden pole, resembling a large umbrella. The canopy was large, so it was often used as a synonym for the chariot, such as "cangài" (crown and canopy). There is also the idiom "qīng gài rú gù," meaning that two people meet on the road, lean their chariots together, and talk, finding it as comfortable as talking with old friends.
(5) About the bāgǔwén (eight-part essay) and shìtiēshī (exam poetry). The bāgǔwén was the prescribed style of writing for the imperial examinations during the Ming and Qing dynasties, also called "eight-comparison essays," "zhìyì," "shíyì," or "shíwén." Because the essay topics were mainly from the "Four Books," it was also called "Four Books essays." The bāgǔwén had a fixed format and a series of strict rules. Each essay consisted of eight parts: pòtí (breaking the topic), chéngtí (carrying forward the topic), qǐjiǎng (introduction), rénshǒu (starting point), qǐgǔ (virtual pair), zhōnggǔ (middle pair), hòugǔ (back pair), and shùgǔ (concluding pair). Pòtí used two sentences to reveal the essence of the topic; chéngtí used three or four sentences to further explain the topic after breaking it; qǐjiǎng (also called yuánqǐ) marked the beginning of the argument; rénshǒu (also called tíbǐ or tígǔ) was where the argument began after the introduction; qǐgǔ (also called xūbǐ or xūgǔ) followed the tíbǐ; zhōnggǔ (also called zhōngbǐ) was the core of the entire essay; hòugǔ (also called hòubǐ) elaborated on the meaning not fully expressed in the zhōnggǔ; and shùgǔ (also called dàjié) was the conclusion of the essay. From qǐgǔ to shùgǔ, there were two pairs of parallel texts in each of the four sections, totaling eight pairs, hence the name "bāgǔwén" or "eight-comparison essays." The total number of characters in the essay was standardized to 550 during the Shunzhi period of the Qing Dynasty, changed to 650 during the Kangxi period, and finally set at 700 during the Qianlong period. Exceeding this limit would result in failure. The essay topics were mainly from the "Four Books," and the content discussed was strictly limited to works such as Zhu Xi’s Collected Annotations on the Four Books, prohibiting candidates from expressing their own ideas. This restricted the thinking of intellectuals both in content and form, forcing them to follow the topic and imitate the tone of the ancients to promote feudal ethics, known as "speaking on behalf of the sages." Such rigid rules undoubtedly hindered the creative thinking of candidates.