A History of Chinese Thought. Volume II, Knowledge, Thought, and Belief in China from the 7th to the 19th Century

Author: Ge Zhaoguang
Publisher:
Publication Date: 2000-12-01
Features: This volume primarily discusses the process of the final establishment and gradual disintegration of the Chinese intellectual world from the 7th to the 19th century. In fact, the so-called tradition of ancient Chinese knowledge, thought, and belief that modern Chinese often mention and can sense is not the ancient Chinese thought laid down in the Qin and Han dynasties, but rather a new tradition gradually constructed over a long period in the Tang and Song dynasties. After the social upheavals of the 8th century, the unified yet mediocre world of knowledge, thought, and belief underwent a reorientation, rediscovered historical resources, and, centered around the reconstruction of state authority and intellectual order, drew new insights from old studies, raised various questions, and ultimately sought innovation within tradition. By the Song dynasty, a new intellectual, thought, and belief world emerged, represented by "Neo-Confucianism" (Lixue) and "Mind School" (Xinxue). After experiencing a brief separation between the "orthodoxy of the Way" (daotong) and the "orthodoxy of the state" (zhengtong)—that is, the temporary divergence between cultural power and political power—around the 13th century, China established a new national political ideology. Due to the institutionalization and secularization of this concept, the unity of ancient Chinese ethics was formed during that era. However, after the Yuan and Ming dynasties, as 16th-century China gradually moved from the tributary system centered on the "Middle Kingdom" to an era of "all nations," this intellectual, thought, and belief world began to develop deep fissures. Although the transition from the Ming to the Qing dynasty once temporarily papered over these fissures, temporarily restoring a unified intellectual landscape at the public and political discourse levels, the tradition of splitting between the public and private spheres ultimately disintegrated under the pressure and allure of advanced ships and powerful weapons. Especially after China's defeat by Japan in 1895, driven by a sense of indignation and humiliation, China began to pursue strength in the Western style and embarked on an irreversible path of Westernization. This gave rise to the various intellectual movements of modern China.