Taoism and Drama

Author: Zhan Shichuang
Publisher:
Publishing Time: 2004-04-01
Features:
1. Interpretation of the Category of Drama
Drama is a traditional comprehensive art. In ancient China, it was almost interchangeable with the concept of "Xiqu" (Chinese opera). Therefore, to understand the essence of drama, one must clarify the origin of the Xiqu concept. According to the Shuowen Jiezi, a classical dictionary by the Han Dynasty scholar Xu Shen, the character "xi" () is derived from the sound of "ge" (), meaning "the flank of the three armies." The term "flank" refers to an ancient form of chariot warfare organization, while "ge" () was both a labor tool for fishing and hunting and a weapon in ancient times. This indicates that China's original "xi" originated from the imitation of life and production actions.
The character "qu" (), anciently written as "qū," is described in the Shuowen Jiezi as "a shape resembling a vessel that curves to hold things." Thus, the original meaning of "qu" was to describe the shape of an object. From the side, its outer shape resembles the square "fang" (), as if a vessel were receiving things. This is the original meaning of "qu." By extension, it became known as "wěi qū," meaning "not straight is curved." The Book of Songs (Shijing), in the "Xiaorong" section of the Qin Wind, says: "In its board house, its my heart's ." The annotation explains: "The heart's refers to its wěi qū, and worrys the heart." The heart's reception of external things is like the "qu" vessel receiving things, hence "heart" and "qu" are together called "heart's ," just as the place where water meets the shore is also called "water's ." Due to the habit of "taking analogy from resemblance," the meaning of "qu" further extended, and "yue" (), or musical pieces, were also called "qu" because their sounds were wěi qū.
The combination of "xi" and "qu" appears in the biography of Wu Yongzhang in the Shuiyun Village Manuscripts by Liu Zhuo, a (Southern Song): "By the Xianchun era, Yongjia Xiqu emerged." (Luodi: The Discovery of an Extremely Precious Material, Zhejiang Art Research, Issue 11). In the Chugeng Luhu (Record of the Ploughing Field) by Tao Zongyi of the Ming Dynasty, Volume 25, "Yuanben Name List": "Tang had chuanqi, Song had Xiqu, singing and jesting, and Ci and Shuo, Jin had Yuanben, Zaju, and various tunes (gong). Yuanben and Zaju were essentially the same." From Tao Zongyi's passage, the name "Xiqu" existed before the Jin and Yuan dynasties, but at that time, it was merely one of the performance forms listed alongside singing and jesting, and Ci and Shuo. The emergence of the term "Xiqu" had historical and logical inevitability in the development of art. In the Chugeng Luhu, Volume 27, "Zaju Qu Name": "When the court historian was abolished, chuanqi emerged, and chuanqi was followed by Xiqu." The "court historian" () was originally an official in ancient times who told the emperor about customs, folk tales, and street gossip. Later, it became a synonym for fiction or fiction writers. "Chuanqi" was originally a fictional novel style, and ancient dramatists adopted it to call it drama. According to Tao Zongyi's view, Xiqu was formed in a specific historical period. First, there were court historians telling folk tales, then there were interesting chuanqi novels, and finally, Xiqu emerged. This view, though not entirely correct, pointed out the close connection between Xiqu and ancient folk tales and fiction.
The concept of Xiqu can be divided into narrow and broad definitions. In the Yuanqu Xuan (Selection of Yuan Qu) by Zang Jinsu of the Ming Dynasty, he quoted Tao Zongyi: "Song had Xiqu, Jin had Yuanben and Zaju, and Yuan followed suit, but Yuanben and Zaju were divided into two." (Zang Jinsu, Yuanqu Xuan, Volume 1, Zhonghua Book Company, 1985, p. 9). Thus, in Tao Zongyi's mind, "Xiqu" was distinct from "Yuanben" or "Zaju." It is clear that he considered Xiqu to be a unique genre of drama exclusive to the Song Dynasty, not including previous forms like "canjun xi" (lit. "soldier's play") or Zaju from the Yuan Dynasty onwards. This is the narrow definition of the "Xiqu" concept. This usage characteristic is not only time-limited but also conceptually limited. In other words, it is not comprehensive through time and does not cover all varieties of Chinese drama.
In contrast to the narrow concept of Xiqu, the broad concept of Xiqu is comprehensive through time and has a wider coverage in terms of variety. It not only has general literary narrative qualities but also richly embodies Chinese performance characteristics; it is the combination of "xi" () and "singing" (), expressing thematic ideas through systematic character actions. From a temporal perspective, it includes "baixi" () from the Qin and Han dynasties, "canjun xi" from the Tang Dynasty, Zaju from the Song and Yuan dynasties, and legendary dramas from the Ming and Qing dynasties, as well as modern drama. From a geographical perspective, it encompasses all drama genres produced in the Chinese territory. In this sense, "Xiqu" is identical to what is today called "drama." This book conducts research based on this understanding and also briefly explores related quyi (Chinese folk arts) works.
2. The Relationship Between Taoism and Drama
Introduction: Chinese drama is rich in content and diverse in form. For a long time, many scholars have actively engaged in the study of drama and have achieved certain results. However, few have explored the relationship between Taoism and drama. This cannot be said to be a regrettable phenomenon. As a traditional religion of China, Taoism has had a profound influence on many areas of traditional Chinese culture over the past two thousand years. It has not only made unique contributions in fields such as health preservation, qigong, medicine, ancient chemistry, ancient biology, and philosophy but has also permeated widely in the field of literature and art. As a category of literature and art, drama is naturally closely related to Taoism. This is not an opinion derived from speculative logical reasoning but is supported by a wealth of factual evidence.
First, from the perspective of the author. Any mature drama must have a literary script or performance script, which are naturally created by authors, so the study of drama cannot be separated from the study of the author's thought. From the existing ancient literature, we can see that numerous literati since the Yuan Dynasty have actively engaged in the creation of drama. In addition to using historical legends and love stories to create entertaining Xiqu, they have also extracted Taoist legends about deities and immortals, transforming and developing them to create drama works that reflect Taoist activities and express the thoughts of deities. Or, they have blended Taoist legends and allusions with other themes, embedding moral teachings in the plot to add a romantic flavor to the works. According to the author's research, the main drama writers in the Yuan Dynasty who engaged in this field include: Ma Zhiyuan, Li Wenvi, Wu Changling, Li Shouqing, Shang Zhongxian, Zhang Guobin, Yue Bochuan, Shi Jiujing (Xian), Li Shizhong, Zheng Guangzu, Zhong Sicheng, Fan Kang, Guan Yunshi, Hongzi Li Er, Hualilang, Xu, Gu Zi Jing, Li Tangbin, Yang Ne, Jia Zhongming, and Wang Ziyi. In the Ming Dynasty, the main drama writers include: Zhu Quan, Zhu Youdun, Xu Lin, Yang Shen, Xu Wei, Shi Pan, Tu Long, Tang Xianzu, Zhao Qimei, Shan Ben, Gao Zecheng, Wang Daokun, Chen Suowen, Zhou Lujing, Gao Lian, Gu Jueyu, Feng Menglong, Ling Mengchu, Mao Wei, Wang Yuanshou, and Lu Di. Many of the drama writers listed above also have Taoist titles, such as Guan Yunshi, who is known as Luhua Tao Ren (); Zhu Quan, who is known as Hanxu Zi () and Huo Xian (); Gao Zecheng, who is known as Cai Gen Tao Ren (); Li Tangbin, who is known as Yu Hu Tao Ren (); Xu Lin, who is known as Jiufeng Tao Ren (); Xu Wei, who is known as Qingteng Dao Shi (); Tang Xianzu, who is known as Qingyuan Dao Ren (); Zhao Qimei, who is known as Qingchang Dao Ren (); Gao Lian, who is known as Ruinan Dao Ren (); and Huang Zhouxing, who is known as Xiaobao Dao Ren (). Although those who call themselves "Taoists" or "immortals" may not necessarily join the Taoist organization, it at least indicates their identification or partial identification with Taoist thought, or their emotional closeness and resonance with Taoism. Some drama writers themselves were members of Taoism, such as Zhu Quan and Zhou Lujing. Zhu Quan was the seventeenth son of the Ming Dynasty's founding emperor, Zhu Yuanzhang. At the age of fifteen, he was enfeoffed to Daxing, located outside the western of the Great Wall, and was known as the "Ning Wang" (). In 1399, Zhu Yuanzhang's fourth son, Zhu Li, launched an attack on the court under the name of "Jingnan" (), pretending to cooperate with Zhu Quan and promising to divide the empire with him upon success. However, after Zhu Li ascended the throne, he did not fulfill his promise, nor did he agree to Zhu Quan's request to enfeoff Suzhou and Hangzhou. In the second month of the Yongle era (1403), Zhu Li transferred Zhu Quan to Nanchang. The political struggle led to Zhu Quan's transcendental and otherworldly thoughts. When Zhu Quan was in a state of depression and hesitation, the fourth-generation Tian Shi (Heavenly Master) of the Zhengyi sect, Zhang Yuchu, came to Nanchang from Longhu Mountain and guided Zhu Quan, opening his mind. This made Zhu Quan's heart clear. During his stay in Nanchang, Tian Shi Zhang Yuchu studied the Dao De Jing by Laozi, the Nanhuai Jing by Zhuangzi, and the Zhengyi Jing by Zhang Ling with Zhu Quan every day. Under the "conversion" of Zhang Yuchu, Zhu Quan finally formally joined the Taoist organization. To further practice Taoist methods, Zhu Quan chose Xiangshan Mountain near Nanchang to build a temple, and obtained the approval of the emperor. In the third year of the Yongle era, the "Nanji Changsheng Gong" (Palace of the Southern Pole for Eternal Life), inscribed with an imperial plaque, was completed, housing statues of the South Pole Immortal and Laozi and Zhuangzi. After that, Zhu Quan spent most of his time in this palace practicing Taoism, studying Taoist scriptures, practicing qigong, playing the qin, and composing Zaju, living a carefree life as a Taoist. His works include dozens of types, including works such as Daluo Tian (Great Lao Heaven). He once wrote a poem to bid farewell to Tian Shi Zhang Yuchu: "In the morning, I ride two cranes in the sky, and at night, I untie two wild geese. Rushing back to the immortal's mansion, I ask if the peach is ripe." These lines express his deep connection with the Taoist leader Tian Shi Zhang Yuchu while also reflecting his belief in joining the Taoist sect.
The Ming Dynasty drama writer Zhou Lujing was even more devoted to Taoism. Zhou, styled Yi, was known as Luoguan Zi and was from Xiushui (now Jiaxing, Zhejiang). He spent a long time practicing and composing poems at home, creating the Zaju drama work Jin Jian Ji (Record of the Brocade Letter). As a home-practicing believer in Taoism, Zhou Lujing often engaged in the Taoist practice of "fuhui jiangbi" (). "Fuhui jiangbi" is a unique Taoist divination practice. Li Shu, in his Dictionary of Taoism, explains: "Jiang refers to divination to ask questions. The sorcerer constructs a wooden frame in the shape of a or ( or ), hangs a cone at the straight end, resembling a spring, places it on a sand tray called a jiangbi, and calls it the jiangbi pen. Two people hold the ends of the frame, and when the sorcerer invokes the spirit according to the talisman, the cone moves automatically, drawing characters in the sand, either showing auspicious or inauspicious signs, or engaging in poetry and song with others, or prescribing medicine for illnesses. After the event, the spirit withdraws, and the cone stops moving. The person performing the ritual is called a 'luan shou' () or 'luan sheng' ()." When discussing Zhou Lujing's poem about "fuhui jiangbi," Peng Guo pointed out: "Zhouzi Mei Xue used the jiangbi to summon immortals, and the immortals gathered, each gifting him with poetry. Why? Because Zhouzi was ethereal and transcendent, detached from the mortal world, and throughout his life, he was obsessed with poetry and calligraphy, never ceasing to compose, so he not only obtained immortality but also obtained poetry. This is a natural fit." (Record of the Fuhui Jiangbi, Initial Series of Compendiums).
We know that "shengxian" () is the highest goal of Taoist cultivation. Peng Guo's description of Zhou Lujing as "obtaining immortality" indicates that Zhou Lujing was not just an ordinary believer in Taoism but also had high Taoist cultivation, so he could "summon immortals and the immortals gathered" and skillfully operate the Taoist practice of "fuhui jiangbi." Reading Record of the Fuhui Jiangbi, one cannot help but feel the strong atmosphere of immortals. For example, one poem by the imagined "Meihua Tao Ren" who descended with the pen: "Entering the dream of Luofu, the name of the Taoist has been known for ages. Spring in the pen, jade zither in the clouds. Shadows of the moon in the sky, evening bell sounds in the wild temple. Solitary pine hills, spring birds sing often." (Record of the Fuhui Jiangbi, Initial Series of Compendiums). This imagined "Meihua Tao Ren" takes people to admire the Taoist songs played on the jade zither in the floating clouds and then leads them to listen to the evening bell sounds in the moonlit mountain. This shows that Zhou Lujing was not only familiar with Taoist rituals but also skillful at using Taoist allusions to create a mystical atmosphere. His grasp of the spirit of Taoism naturally left its mark on his drama works. Like Zhou Lujing and Zhu Quan, there were many drama writers who believed in Taoism during the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties. It is worth noting that many drama writers, although they did not go into monastic life, often studied Taoist classics at home and had a deep understanding of Taoist theory, so their drama works often shone with the "spirit of Taoism," which itself is worth pondering.
Second, from the perspective of titles and genres. In ancient China, influenced by the veneration of classics, drama was considered a "small art" and was not considered suitable for the grand stage. Therefore, for a long time, many works in this field were lost. However, many literati, out of their dedication to the art, worked to preserve and organize them. Some works, though lost for various reasons, were still recorded by bibliographers. From the records of literature before the Republic of China, we can find a considerable number of drama works that reflect Taoist activities, express Taoist emotions, or are influenced by Taoist thought, using Taoist legends to portray the stories of immortals. For example: Dobu Daluo Tian, Tongxuan Ji, Nao Men Shen, Han Dan Ji, Chisong Ji, Gou Ya Lü Dongbin, Fuling Xian, Yin Zhong Xian, Zi Gu Shen, Chu Qian Shen, Er Xian Pan Dao Ge, Zhong Kui Song Mei, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Tian Tai Shan, Kun Xian Zhen, Zhuangzi San Tan Qi, Yi Qiao Shu, Su Wu Yu Xian, Chang Sheng Lu, Ji Dong Feng, Tian Xian Yu, Shou Yu Tu, Lan Guan Xue, Hai Zhi Xian, Qing Guan Jie, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Zhong Kui Xian Mei, Er Xian Pan Dao Ge, Zhong Kui Song Mei, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Shou, Dongbin Xian, Qin Di Ba Xian Qing Sh