I Ching: Basic Classics of Chinese Scholarship

Author: Song Zeyin
Publisher:
Publication Date: 2001-04-02
Features: Any entity is constrained by environmental conditions. Without first understanding when the Book of Changes (Zhou Yi) was compiled, it is difficult to comprehend it. The traditional view holds that Fu Xi drew the Eight Trigrams, and King Wen of Zhou transformed them into sixty-four hexagrams, writing the hexagram and line texts, thus compiling the Book of Changes in the early Western Zhou period. Many modern scholars, however, doubt the Fu Xi legend. The phrase "King Wen, imprisoned, composed the Book of Changes," is merely's personal opinion, and the Book of Documents·Zhou Shu contains no direct records of it. Conversely, the Grand Declaration states, "King Ning of Zhou consulted the oracle." Therefore, to claim that King Wen wrote the Book of Changes, a work that inherits the composition and linguistic materials of ancient divination texts, is impossible. Moreover, many of the line texts in the Book of Changes clearly could not have originated from King Wen, further proving that the work was not his.
For example, hexagram Mingyi (Darkness) line 3, "Jizi's Mingyi," occurred after King Wu placed King Wen's image on the throne and reviewed troops at Mengjin. King Wen could not have known this in advance. Hexagram Jia (Hold Together) line 4, "Leading sheep results in no regret," refers to the events after the Minor Prince defeated King Zhou and the Shang dynasty, something King Wen also could not have foreseen. Hexagram Lu (Treading) line 5, "The warrior serves the great lord," pertains to the late reign of King Li, when Bohe usurped the throne ( Bamboo Annals ), something far beyond King Wen's knowledge.
Since the Book of Changes was not composed by King Wen, the traditional claim that it was compiled in the early Western Zhou period becomes untenable. Recently, some scholars have proposed that the Book of Changes was written in the late Western Zhou period, a theory worth considering. The following arguments support this view.
Compared to the Zhou Shu of the Book of Documents, the language of the Book of Changes is much easier to understand, lacking the difficulty of the Zhou Shu. For instance, hexagram Zun () line 2, "A woman’s integrity is unbroken for ten years before she marries," and hexagram Sun () line 3, "Three walk, one is lost; one walks, one finds a friend," are close to the written language of the Spring and Autumn period. Therefore, it is more plausible that the Book of Changes was compiled in the late Western Zhou rather than the early Western Zhou.
As mentioned above, "The warrior serves the great lord" records events from King Li’s time. However, relying solely on this point is insufficient evidence. Hexagram Mingyi line 3 mentions "hunting southward," and the hexagram text of hexagram Sheng () says, "Southward conquest brings good fortune." These suggest military campaigns against the Southern State of Chu and the hope of victory. This likely occurred after the events recorded in "King Zhao’s southward campaign without return" (Zuo Zhuan, Duke Xi Year 2) and "King Mu’s southward campaign where the army did not return" (a poem by Han Yu). By then, it was close to the late Western Zhou period.
Additionally, the Book of Changes is filled with yin-yang concepts. Its sixty-four hexagrams are composed of yin and yang lines, yet the terms "yin" and "yang" do not appear in the text until the Chunqiu period, when Duke Xuan’s minister Gu Wen Gong stated, "Yin and yang are distributed, thunder rumbles and the stagnant flows" (Documents of the Zhou, Chapter on Zhou Speech). Thus, the Book of Changes could not have been compiled during Duke Xuan’s reign.
Since it cannot be dated to the reigns of Kings Zhao, Mu, or Xuan—yet it records major events concerning King Li—it is reasonable to conclude that the Book of Changes was written for King Li. Certain hexagrams also hint at this. For instance, hexagram Kui () line 2, "Meeting the sovereign in the lanes," and line 4, "Meeting the great man," imply that a minister (the great man) encountered King Li (the sovereign) in the depths of the palace. This proves King Li’s imprisonment by the warriors.
Another example is hexagram Mingyi line 1, "A gentleman travels, three days without food, with a place to go, but the host rebukes him." This describes King Li’s hunger and occasional movements during his exile, receiving blame from warriors as if rebuked by his own host. Yet another example is hexagram Lü () line 4, "A traveler resides abroad but holds the yellow axe (zīfǔ)," indicating he still possessed the yellow axe, the symbol of imperial authority used to command the realm. This further confirms that King Li, exiled to Zhi and wandering like a traveler, was the subject.
The Book of Changes reflects the author’s hope for King Li’s restoration and the revival of the Western Zhou. Hexagram Qian () line 5, "A flying dragon fills the sky," and hexagram Kun () line 5, "A yellow robe brings supreme good fortune," vividly illustrate this sentiment. This stems from the author’s love for the former Western Zhou and patriotic ideals. The author was fully aware that King Li was an inept ruler and could not. A single hexagram, Guan (), entirely criticizes King Li’s severe faults.
Hexagram Jing () line 3, "The well is cleaned but not drunk; it grieves my heart. If the king is wise, we will all receive his blessings," reflects the author’s concern about King Li’s neglect of governance and his criticism of his cruelty and blindness. Hexagram Lü line 1, "A humble traveler suffers disasters," harshly condemns King Li’s lack of foresight, his oppression of the people, and his self-imposed exile.
The impending collapse of the Western Zhou is metaphorically depicted in hexagram Feng () line 6, "A great house is dark, but the courtyard is filled with straw," and hexagram Yi () line 4, "Using this to rely on relocation of the capital yields benefits," clearly reveals the inevitable migration of the capital. These demonstrate the author’s hope for King Li’s restoration, driven by loyalty and patriotism.
To assist King Li in regaining his throne, the Book of Changes proposes certain theories and methods.
1. Strategy and Tactics: King Li’s restoration hinges on expelling the warriors through force. At that time, King Li was weak, while the warriors were strong. To achieve this, he must adopt strategies of "retreat to advance" and "take the rear to seize the lead," employing "softness to overcome hardness" and "weakness to defeat strength." These are the tactics and strategies the author urges King Li to adopt, vividly reflected in hexagram Xiao Guo ().
The hexagram text of Xiao Guo states, "Suitable for small but not for great. The sound of flying birds leaves behind no trace. Not for above, but for below—great fortune." This means one should occupy the small and not the great, affirm the lower and not the higher, to achieve victory through smallness and overthrow through inferiority, leading to great fortune. This is the strategy of "retreat to advance" and "take the rear to seize the lead," achieving the effect of "softness to overcome hardness" and "weakness to defeat strength."
2. Combining Military and Diplomatic Means: Military action against the warriors is one approach (martial). Diplomatic reconciliation is another (civil). Hexagram Xu () line 6, "Entering a cave," suggests military action against the warriors. Hexagram Bi () line 2, "Gathering from within," indicates diplomatic reconciliation. The order of Xu before Bi reflects a focus on military action as primary, with diplomacy secondary, both integrated harmoniously.
3. Lenient Policies: Hexagram Song () line 3, "Unable to debate, returning, the three hundred households in his domain remain unharmed," advises King Li to adopt lenient policies to divide and weaken the warriors internally.
4. Strict Rewards and Punishments: Hexagram Song line 9, "Either given a collar or stripped of it three times in a morning," warns King Li to generously reward loyal generals and severely punish defeats, thereby boosting morale.
5. Seeking: The Book of Changes often uses the metaphor of a man seeking a woman, such as hexagram Xian () text, "Taking a woman brings fortune," and hexagram Jia () text, "Favorable for a woman’s integrity."
6. Valuing the People: Hexagram Tong Ren () texts, "Gathering people in the wilderness" and line 9, "Gathering people in the suburbs," emphasize uniting the populace to fight the warriors.
7. Emphasizing Moral Governance: Hexagram Lin () text, "By the eighth month, there is ill fortune," criticizes cruel governance. The eighth month in the Zhou calendar corresponds to the sixth month in the lunar calendar, the height of summer when flames melt stones—metaphorically describing oppressive rule. Line 6, "Mild governance," advocates kindness and cautions against oppressing the people. Combining these aspects, the author urges King Li to reform and govern with virtue after expelling the warriors.
8. Implementing Reforms: Hexagram Ge () line 5, "The great man changes like a tiger," signifies reforms led by King Li achieving significant success. Hexagram Ding () text, "Supreme fortune, prosperous," indicates reforms will bring the nation fortune and prosperity. These reformist ideas in hexagrams Ge and Ding are the tools the author offers King Li to revitalize the Western Zhou after his liberation.
The Book of Changes also introduces philosophical concepts serving King Li’s restoration. These include Fu (, sincerity), Zhong Xing (, moderate action), Dao (, the Way), Wu Wei (, non-action), and Cyclic Theory.
Fu appears forty-two times in the Book of Changes, often emphasizing the idea, "Only the supremely sincere can transform" (Doctrine of the Mean, Chapter 23). A person with Fu "need not ask for supreme fortune" (Yi line 9, Yi hexagram), or "with sincerity in heart, all actions are auspicious" (Kan text, Kan hexagram). This Fu is clearly intended to serve King Li’s restoration. The author believes King Li possesses this Fu because he is the Son of Heaven.
Fu enables actions to be perfectly appropriate, as seen in hexagram Yi line 3, "With sincerity, moderate action." Zhong Xing means moderate, neither nor. Someone with this virtue cannot be exiled and should rule the world. The Book of Changes’s Zhong Xing also serves King Li’s restoration.
The Book of Changes generates Dao from Fu, as seen in hexagram Sui () line 4, "With sincerity, the Way becomes clear." This means the presence of Fu makes the Way manifest—a concept that originated in China’s philosophical history and served King Li’s politics. Hexagram Lu line 2, "Walking the Way, the path is level, the secluded person’s integrity brings fortune," states that walking the path is auspicious, even for a captive, only when aided by the Way. Yong Ren () refers to a imprisoned person, just as King Li was. His integrity brought fortune through the Way, meaning liberation through the Way. "Walking the Way, the path is level" does not refer to roads but to the Way of virtue. A captive walking on roads could not achieve fortune; only the Way could.
The Book of Changes also introduces Wu Wei. Hexagram Dai () line 3, "The petty man uses strength, the noble man uses non-action," contrasts martial force with Wu Wei. Hexagram Xiao Guo line 4, "Advancing is dangerous, be cautious, do not act—perpetual integrity," compares excess with Wu Wei to demonstrate its correctness. Wu Wei is not inaction but acting without subjective whims, fully respecting objective reality. Wherever it respects actuality, it succeeds—hence "non-action" is "non-doing nothing."
The Book of Changes’s Wu Wei is not doing nothing but achieving everything (Wu Bu Wei). It arises from the strategies and tactics of fighting the warriors, as softness nears Wu Wei, and strength secures priority, nearing "non-action" and "achieving everything." Wu Wei is also the tool the author suggests King Li use to fight the warriors, as respecting objective reality aids victory.
The Book of Changes establishes Cyclic Theory. Hexagram Tai () text, "Small goes, large comes," means yin gives way to yang. Hexagram Pi () text, "Large goes, small comes," means yang gives way to yin. Together, they show yin and yang cycling. Applied to a dynasty’s rise and fall, this means after prosperity comes decline, and after decline comes prosperity—cycling endlessly. Hexagram Qian line 9, "Seeing a group of dragons without a head," depicts a cycle where no dragon leads or follows, metaphorically representing the endless rise and fall of the Western Zhou. After "a flying dragon fills the sky," comes "a towering dragon has regret," and after that, "a flying dragon fills the sky" again. Thus, King Li’s decline could lead to rise, and the Western Zhou’s decline could lead to rise—the author fervently hopes for this.
However, according to Cyclic Theory, King Li would continue to decline, and the Western Zhou would too, an outcome the author does not wish to see. Therefore, when applying Cyclic Theory to King Li or the Western Zhou, the author only considers decline to prosperity, not prosperity to decline. Hexagram Pi line 5, "Rest from Pi, the noble man is fortunate—will he lose his realm? Will he lose his realm?" "The fate of the realm is as firm as being tied to a thicket of mulberry trees." This shows that Cyclic Theory only aids King Li and the Western Zhou from decline to prosperity, ignoring the reverse. Thus, it becomes a "half-cyclic theory."
Nevertheless, the Book of Changes still established Cyclic Theory, as seen in hexagram Fu () text, "The Way repeats."
To properly understand the Book of Changes, it is essential to discard two incorrect research methods.
1. Yao Position Theory: This theory divides a hexagram’s six lines into yin and yang positions: 1, 3, and 5 are yang; 2, 4, and 6 are yin. A yin line in a yin position is "correct" and auspicious; otherwise, it is "incorrect" and inauspicious. The Book of Changes is a political and philosophical work, complex in content, yet this artificial model is imposed on it, making it convoluted. For example, hexagram Heng () line 4, "Farming without birds or beasts," and the Xiao Xiang commentary, "Long not in its position—how can it get birds or beasts?" assume a yang line in a yin position is inauspicious (line 9 is yang, line 4 is yin). Hexagram Dai () line 5, "Losing a sheep at Yi," and the Xiao Xiang commentary, "'Losing a sheep at Yi,' improper position," assume a yin line in a yang position is inauspicious (line 6 is yin, line 5 is yang). However, checking the Book of Changes, this theory does not hold in most cases.
For instance, hexagram Ji Ji () line 3, "King Gao fights the Gu Fang for three years and conquers, petty men should not be used," implies delays due to using petty men, not a case of a yang line in a proper position being auspicious. Hexagram Wei Ji () line 5, "Integrity brings fortune, no regret, the noble man’s radiance, sincerity brings fortune," suggests the noble man’s integrity and auspiciousness, not a case of a yin line in an improper position being inauspicious.
The theories built upon Yao Position Theory, such as Xiang Ying (, corresponding lines), are also inconsistent with the Book of Changes. Hexagram Heng’s Tuan Xiang commentary, "Both yin and yang correspond—constant, prosperous," discusses corresponding lines like line 1 with line 4, line 2 with line 5, and line 3 with line 6. Yin with yang or yang with yin is "harmonious" and auspicious; yang with yang or yin with yin is "opposing" and inauspicious. These are also inconsistent with the Book of Changes.
2. Divination Theory: Divination uses changes in lines and hexagrams, supposedly present in the Book of Changes but absent in the text. This method of studying the Book of Changes first appears in Zuo Zhuan, Duke Zhuang Year 22, when the Zhou historian predicted the future for the younger son of Chen Li Gong, "Encountering Guan’s Pi," meaning hexagram 6 line 4 changed to 9 line 4, becoming Pi. The Zhou historian concluded the younger son and his descendants would have a bright future based on line 6’s commentary, "Seeing the light of the state, it is favorable to attend the king." Zuo Zhuan and Guo Yi often use the Book of Changes for divination, and the Yi Da Zhuan’s Xi Ci Zhuang and Shuo Gua Zhuang further promoted this. Does the Book of Changes involve divination? Three points reveal the answer: no.
First, hexagram Meng text, "First divination advises, repeated divination is disrespectful, disrespectful means no advice," and hexagram Bi text, "Originate, divinate—perpetual integrity, no harm," seem to support divination. However, apart from these two instances, the Book of Changes never mentions divination. Many also argue that the Meng text does not refer to divination but to decision and research, as Cheng Yi’s Yi Zhuan states, "Divination refers to, not using oracle." As for the Bi text, Kong Yingda’s Zheng Yi Zhuang says, "Divination determines its meaning," meaning generally deciding the significance of an event, unrelated to divination. Only these two instances mention divination, and neither refers to it. How can one conclude the Book of Changes is a divination book?
Second, the Book of Changes not only does not involve divination but opposes it. Hexagram Ge line 5, "The great man changes like a tiger—no divination needed, it is believable," implies reforms by the king are as impressive as tiger-like transformation, convincing without divination. "No divination needed, it is believable" confirms the Book of Changes opposes divination. Since the Book of Changes does not discuss divination, later great scholars like Laozi, Confucius, and Xunzi did not believe it involved divination. Laozi’s Dao De Jing comprehensively inherits and develops the Book of Changes but does not mention its connection to divination. Confucius, when discussing the Book of Changes with someone, said, "It is not divination but sufficient" (Analects, Zi Lu). Xunzi also said, "A good Yi practitioner does not divinate" (Da Lü). These confirm the Book of Changes does not involve divination.
Most importantly, divination based on changing lines and hexagrams often requires such changes, as previously cited, "Encountering Guan’s Pi." However, checking all sixty-four hexagrams and, plus Qian’s "Use Nine" and Kun’s "Use Six," no signs of changing lines and hexagrams are found, only added by later scholars. The Xi Ci Shang Zhuang’s tenth chapter: "The Yi has, which generates two forms, two forms generate four images, four images generate eight trigrams," is widely accepted as authoritative on changing lines and hexagrams in the Book of Changes. It is said the two forms are yin and yang, the four images are the old yin (), old yang (), lesser yin (), and lesser yang (). The old yin is called , the old yang , lesser yin , and lesser yang . Six and nine are changeable, while eight and seven are not. Since the Book of Changes calls yin lines six and yang lines nine, it also has changeable lines and hexagrams. However, these claims lack logical foundation, as the Book of Changes never had unchangeable lesser yin eight and lesser yang seven—how could there be counterparts to make them changeable?
Based on the analysis above, divination is an external addition to the Book of Changes but became fashionable for over two thousand years, deeply harming the Chinese people.
Lastly, it is necessary to note the distinction between the Yi and Chuan (). The hexagram and line texts are the Yi, while the Tuan Zhuang (), Xiang Zhuang (), Yuan Wen (), Xi Ci (), Shuo Gua (), Xu Gua (), and Za Gua () are the Chuan. While they are connected, they are also distinct and should not be confused. Sometimes the Chuan aligns with the Yi’s meaning, such as the Tuan Zhuang of hexagram Song ("，，") and the Tuan Zhuang of hexagram Fu ("，，"). However, many do not align with the Yi’s meaning, such as the theories mentioned above.
Nevertheless, although the Chuan largely does not align with the Yi’s meaning, it sometimes correctly modifies or develops it. For example, Dao, considered idealistic in the Book of Changes, is materialized in the Xi Ci Shang Zhuang’s fifth chapter: "One yin and one yang constitute the Way." As for Cyclic Theory, the Book of Changes only describes the cycle of individual things, while the Xi Ci Xia Zhuang’s fifth chapter: "The past is , the future is ，the interaction of creates fortune," incorporates contradiction into the cycle and develops it.