Biographical Review of Gu Jie's Academic Thought

Author: Liu Lina
Publisher:
Publishing Date: 1999-09-01
Features: Reviewing the development of Chinese academia in the 20th century, it can be said that: it was a century of abundance, innovation, and brilliance. Over a hundred years, renowned scholars emerged, stars shone brightly, achievements were bountiful, and new ideas were constantly introduced. Traditional Chinese scholarship underwent transformation, while Western scholarship was extensively introduced into China. Through the exchange, collision, and integration of Chinese and Western academia, 20th-century Chinese academic culture was born and rapidly grew. Within a century, new breakthroughs and significant progress were made in various academic fields, establishing a complete system of modern Chinese academic culture. Reviewing and summarizing the academic development of the 20th century, clarifying its right and wrongs, is a meaningful endeavor, an essential step in advancing 21st-century academia and further constructing socialist academic culture in China. Traditional Chinese academic culture has a long history, profound roots, and has produced splendid achievements and substantial accumulations. It has long nurtured the Chinese people, shaping the character and spirit of the Chinese nation, and holds an important place in the history of world academic culture. However, since the mid-19th century, imperialist invasions brought Western academic culture to China. The spread of Western learning experienced several stages, starting with the dissemination of material civilization, followed by institutional and spiritual civilizations, until Marxism was introduced to China. Western academic culture is vast and far-reaching in influence. Upon entering China, it took root, blossomed, and bore fruit. It changed the direction and pace of development of Chinese academic thought and even the entire society, enabling China to transition from a traditional feudal society to a modern one. During this period, there were intense struggles and gradual integration between Chinese and Western studies, between old and new learning, and between traditional and modern scholarship. The 20th-century academic culture of China was born through this process of struggle and integration. The modernization of Chinese academic culture began with Yan Fu's translation of Western academic classics. In the late 19th century, he translated "Evolution and Ethics" by Thomas Huxley, introducing the theory of evolution to the Chinese people and revolutionizing their academic perspectives. Later, he successively translated Adam Smith's "The Wealth of Nations," John Stuart Mill's "On Liberty," John Stuart Mill's "A System of Logic," Herbert Spencer's "Principles of Sociology," Montesquieu's "The Spirit of the Laws," John Stuart Mill's "A System of Logic," and George Johnstone Stoney's "Elements of Logic." These were fields rarely studied or written about in traditional Chinese academia, providing references for modern Chinese economics, political science, law, sociology, and logic, which thus emerged. In 1901, Liang Qichao published "Discourse on the History of China," explaining the difference between modern and traditional historiography: "As world academia advances, the role of modern historians differs from that of their predecessors. Earlier historians merely recorded facts, while modern historians must explore the relationships and causes and effects of these facts. Earlier historians confined themselves to the rise and fall of a few powerful individuals or families, though called history, it was merely a genealogy of a person or family. Modern historians must investigate the overall movement and progress of human society, the experiences of the entire nation, and their interrelationships." He passionately called for the breaking of traditional historiography and a revolutionary transformation, believing it was a matter of great importance to the nation's survival. He said, "If the revolution in historiography does not occur, our country will be irredeemable. Among all things, this is the most important." At this time, Xia Zengyou wrote "A New Middle School Textbook on the History of China," which was the first modern Chinese general history written in a chapter-based style. Other disciplines also entered the modern era at the beginning of the 20th century. In 1910, Shen Jiaben founded the Legal Society and "The Journal of the Legal Society," which can be considered the of modern Chinese jurisprudence. Wang Guowei and Luo Zhenyu's study of oracle bones unearthed from the Yin Ruins marks the beginning of modern Chinese archaeology. Zhang Taiyan's study of Indian philosophy and Wang Guowei's exploration of Schopenhauer pioneered the study of foreign philosophy by modern Chinese scholars. During the May Fourth Movement, Chen Duxiu and Hu Shi advocated literary revolution, giving birth to modern Chinese literature. Hu Shi wrote "Outlines of the History of Chinese Philosophy," the first analysis and study of ancient Chinese thought from a Western perspective. As for natural sciences, in the late 19th century, scholars like Li Shanlan, Xu Shu, and Hua Hengfang translated numerous works and laid extensive groundwork. In 1915, Chinese students studying in the United States founded the Chinese Scientific Society and launched "The Scientific Monthly," marking the gradual development of modern Chinese natural science research. The 20th-century Chinese academia was a product of advanced intellectuals seeking salvation for the nation by looking to the West for truth. Western doctrines and numerous works surged into China like a flood released from a dam. Chinese scholars, rooted in their own foundation, made choices, discrimination, and absorption, creating academic culture suited to their time. As Chinese scholars, born and raised in China, educated within its borders, were inevitably deeply influenced by traditional Chinese culture. The scholars of the 20th century, coming from the old era, were generally proficient in traditional Chinese culture. The fierce anti-traditionalists of the May Fourth Movement, such as Chen Duxiu, Li Dazhao, Lu Xun, Hu Shi, Qian Xuantong, and Wu Yu, strove to oppose and break away from old traditions to fulfill their historical mission of discarding the old and embracing the new. However, old traditions had already permeated their blood, making it impossible for them to completely sever ties with the past. As they themselves said, they had broken out of the old camp and turned against it. Even "total Westernization" advocates like Chen Xujing could not escape the influence of old traditions. As long as one is Chinese and has been educated in Chinese culture, it is impossible to completely the influence of Chinese academic culture. "Today's me" cannot entirely oppose and discard "yesterday's me." Similarly, no 20th-century Chinese scholar, no matter how conservative or stubborn, could completely oppose Western academic culture. The superiority and advancement of Western academic culture became increasingly evident, and people could not help but accept it to some extent. There were no one who completely opposed and rejected Western academic culture. Modern life, in terms of clothing, food, shelter, and transportation, was largely influenced by the West. Western suits, Western-style meals, Western-style houses, cars, and airplanes—Western civilization was everywhere. Whose life could be separated from these things? Mao Dun, in "The Midnight Sun," portrayed Wu Laoye as a stubborn and ignorant old man, yet when he came to Shanghai from the countryside, he recited "The Great Response to" but lived in a Western-style house and had to travel by car. Sun Yat-sen, with his queue and advocacy of reviving the past, was actually a university scholar with a comprehensive Western education. The major characteristic of the 20th century was the transition from conflict to integration between Chinese and Western cultures. People grew up in an atmosphere of being both Chinese and Western, neither Chinese nor Western, and a blend of both. The struggle and integration of these two heterogeneous cultures would not end in a short time. Historically, the introduction of Buddhist culture to China underwent the periods of the Han, Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, Tang, and Song dynasties, with Confucianism and Buddhism engaging in intense struggles and mutual rejection before gradually integrating. This gave rise to Confucianized Buddhism—Zen Buddhism—and Buddhistized Confucianism—Neo-Confucianism. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, Jesuit missionaries introduced Western culture to China. Despite the support of figures like Xu Guangqi, Li Zhi, even the emperors Shunzhi and Kangxi, they faced fierce resistance from Confucianism. Over a hundred years later, it faded away without taking root or bearing fruit. This shows that the integration of heterogeneous cultures, especially the emergence of new academic culture from this integration, is a long, slow, and arduous process. After the Opium War, the spread of Western culture in China marked the third time heterogeneous culture entered the country, with its scale and influence far exceeding the previous two instances. Due to the superiority of Western academic culture, traditional Chinese culture appeared inferior. By the end of the last century, in the clash between Chinese and Western studies, Chinese studies had been disorganized and defeated. It was necessary to learn from the strengths of Western studies, "taking the West as the teacher," and to recreate Chinese academic culture on its own foundation to rebuild it. Against this historical backdrop, through the unremitting efforts of Chinese scholars, 20th-century Chinese academia was nurtured, emerged, and displayed a new face and vigorous vitality. The 20th-century Chinese academic culture, broadly speaking, has the following characteristics:
1. Guided by the theory of evolution and materialist history. Traditional Chinese academic culture praised the institutions and figures of ancient times, revered the sages and belittled the later kings, considering Yao, Shun, Yu, Tang, Wen, Wu, the Duke of Zhou, and Confucius as the bearers of the Dao. Believing that the ancient Dao had been lost, the later generations engaged in strife and conflict, leading to societal decline. In the late 19th century, Yan Fu translated "Evolution and Ethics," and the principles of social evolution swept the nation, completely changing outdated concepts. The Chinese people came to understand how to observe and study human society from an evolutionary perspective, arriving at conclusions entirely different from those of the ancients. Thus, 20th-century academic culture abandoned traditional notions and established modern new concepts. Around the May Fourth Movement, Marxism was introduced to China, and advanced intellectuals grasped the scientific materialist history, further understanding productivity and production relations, the economic base and superstructure, the objective laws and subjective initiative of social development, etc. They guided academic culture research with materialist history and scientific methods. 20th-century Chinese academic culture made significant progress. All 20th-century Chinese scholars believed in the theory of evolution. After 1949, Marxist materialist history held the dominant position, nurturing and fostering a large number of scholars under its guidance.
2. A new system of knowledge classification was formed. Traditional Chinese academic culture was divided into Confucian classics, historical records, philosophical works, and collected works, not strictly based on disciplinary classification. Among these, Confucian classics were particularly important, dominating and encompassing everything. The "Book of Changes" included mathematics, philosophy, and natural sciences; the "Book of Documents" included political science, history, and geography; the "Book of Songs" included literature, art, and natural sciences; the "Book of Rites" included political science, ethics, and pedagogy; the "Spring and Autumn Annals" included history and political science. Many disciplines were still in their infancy, yet to fully differentiate from the broad Confucian classics, with extremely blurred boundaries between them. 20th-century Chinese academic culture flourished and became comprehensive, forming a new system of knowledge classification. Natural sciences adopted the academic achievements accumulated over centuries in the West and became an independent major discipline. It was categorized into various branches, with numerous sub-disciplines established, including mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, agriculture, engineering, and medicine. These disciplines were numerous, rich in content, and impressive in scope, reaching a high level and benefiting national well-being. In the humanities and social sciences, literature, history, and philosophy were separated, forming their own specialties. New disciplines such as economics, law, pedagogy, sociology, journalism, political science, and psychology emerged and became independent. Due to the rapid progress of human society in the 20th century, people's understanding of nature, society, and themselves deepened, with knowledge and information quantities growing immensely. The content and scope of academic culture expanded, completely breaking the old framework of Confucian classics, historical records, philosophical works, and collected works, forming a new system of modern social and natural sciences.
3. The application of rational methods. Traditional academic research methods were not precise enough, logic was not rigorous, and reasoning and judgment had a certain degree of subjectivity. Academic pursuits involved intuitive insights, deep contemplation, self-reflection, and self-cultivation. Certain non-rational methods, such as those that were imaginative, intuitive, faith-based, speculative, or emotional, as long as they could express the state of the research object—whether real or illusory—could form certain academic knowledge, such as ancient theories of the mythical land of Yung and the nine provinces, the theory of (heaven-human interaction), and the theory of (clear mind and self-nature). In the 20th century, Chinese academia introduced Western research methods, using induction and deduction, emphasizing evidence, adhering to the principles of "no evidence, no belief" and "a single piece of evidence is not sufficient," discarding subjective biases, and maintaining a calm, objective attitude to engage in specific and accurate cognitive activities with rational methods on determined objects. In natural sciences, microscopes, telescopes, and other scientific instruments and experimental methods were used. In social sciences, emphasis was placed on investigative methods to obtain firsthand material. 20th-century academic culture pursued precise and specific understanding of the rich diversity of the real world, thereby recognizing its essence and laws. Modern academic culture valued rational spirit rather than intuition, faith, or authority.
4. High-pitched patriotism. When China entered the 20th century, imperialist aggression became fiercer, and the oppression of feudal warlords and the Nationalist government became more brutal. Facing internal and external crises, the people lived in dire straits. 20th-century Chinese scholars witnessed the fragmentation of the nation and the suffering of the people, filled with infinite compassion, awakening their sense of responsibility, and generously taking the salvation of the nation upon themselves. They diligently explored and devoted themselves to research in various academic fields, all with the purpose of saving the country. 20th-century Chinese academic culture was born and developed in the stormy and turbulent years of hardship. Scholars' common and strong desire was to oppose imperialist aggression and feudal oppression, to make the country prosperous and the people happy. Those in natural sciences hoped to save the country through science; those in economics hoped to save the country through industry; those in pedagogy hoped to save the country through education; those in political science hoped for national prosperity and stability; those in philosophy hoped to revitalize the national spirit; those in history hoped to educate and mobilize the people through historical experience; and those in literature shaped the heroic images of the nation's unyielding heroes. 20th-century Chinese academic culture emerged alongside China's hardships, driving the nation forward, calling for national awakening, and inspiring the struggles of the masses. Therefore, patriotism permeated it, becoming its main spiritual support. 20th-century Chinese academic culture waved the banner of patriotism.