Qin and Han Bureaucratic System

Author: Bu Xianqun
Publisher:
Publish Date: 2002-12-01
Features: This book is a monograph on the bureaucratic system of the Qin and Han dynasties. There have been numerous papers and works on the bureaucratic system of the Qin and Han dynasties, resulting in substantial achievements. However, most previous research has been limited to discussing the evolution of the official system or focusing on specific aspects. This book still examines this issue but achieves breakthroughs. First, in terms of research perspective, it is comprehensive and systematic. Second, in terms of research methods and theory, it introduces new applications and references. Therefore, this book has a clear topic, a novel perspective, broad vision, and reflects a summary of recent research in this field. It holds theoretical and practical significance for advancing the study of Qin and Han history.
I. The Merit and Ability Principles in the Recruitment System
The recruitment system under the feudal monarchy of the Zhou Dynasty was heavily influenced by patriarchal and relationships. However, summarizing the entire recruitment system of the Zhou Dynasty as "hereditary ministers and hereditary privileges" is also incomplete. "Hereditary ministers and hereditary privileges" primarily refer to the inheritance of titles (requiring reappointment by the Zhou) and "receiving the fiefdoms of their father's old state," but it does not imply the hereditary succession of official positions. The Zuo Zhuan (Book of Zuo) records in the 22nd year of Duke Zhao of Zhou (520 BCE): "Prince Zhao, along with the officials and artisans who had lost their ranks, and the families of Duke Ling and Duke Jing, rebelled." Du Yu's annotation states: "Artisans refer to all officials." The officials "who had lost their ranks" meant those who had lost their positions, proving that official positions were not necessarily hereditary. The Guoyu (Book of the States) in the Lower Section of Chu states: "During the Zhou Dynasty, Cheng Boxiu's family was in his lineage. When King Xuan of Zhou was in power, they lost their official positions and became officials of the Sima family." This also illustrates that there was no necessary connection between hereditary ministers and hereditary officials. To obtain hereditary official positions, one must frequently demonstrate meritorious deeds. The Book of Songs (Classic of Poetry), in the Great Elegies, "King Wen," states: "All the men of Zhou, the brilliant ones also inherit." Zheng Xuan's annotation explains: "It refers to ministers with shining virtue who can inherit positions generation after generation, emphasizing their merits." Kong Yingda further analyzes in the Commentary on the Classic of Filial Piety: "Ministers assist the ruler, and it is essential for them to be virtuous, hence they are not hereditary. Those who inherit are exceptional and are granted such status due to great merits." The Rites of Zhou, in the Xia Section, records the duties of the Sī Xūn (Director of Merits): "He oversees the laws of rewards for the six towns, distributing land according to merit. The king's merit is called 'xun,' the state's merit is called 'gong,' the people's merit is called 'yong,' the merit of service is called 'lao,' the merit of governance is called 'li,' and the merit of battle is called 'duo.' For all who have merits, their names are inscribed on the king's great banner and offered sacrifices at the great ceremony. The Director of Merits announces them. For great merits, the Director of Merits keeps a copy. He oversees the policies of rewarding land. In general, rewards are not fixed; they are adjusted based on merit." Whether the types and divisions of merit in the Zhou Dynasty were as detailed as this is still debatable. However, the principle of evaluating merit in selecting officials, even within the scope of hereditary ministers, was certainly present. The ancestors of the Qin dynasty rose from vassals to feudal lords due to their merits. The principle of "adjusting rewards based on merit" also existed to some extent under the feudal politics of the Zhou Dynasty. The sources of officials below the royal ministers were largely from the selection of outstanding scholars in towns and the tribute of scholars from feudal states. The selection of these officials also placed great emphasis on assessing their abilities. The Rites of Zhou, in the Wangzhi section, records: "Command the towns to discuss outstanding scholars and promote them to the Sī Tú (Director of Education), called 'xuanshi' (selected scholars). The Sī Tú discusses the outstanding among the selected scholars and promotes them to school, called 'jùnshi' (brilliant scholars)."