Romance of the Three Kingdoms (Complete 5 Volumes)

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Features: The Three Kingdoms period was a distinctive era in the historical development of feudal China, marked by the rivalry of the three states—Wei, Shu, and Wu. The history of the Three Kingdoms spanned approximately ninety years, from the warlord conflicts in 190 AD to the unification of the south by the Jin dynasty in 280 AD. However, some historians consider 220 AD, the year when Cao Pi declared himself emperor, as the starting point. A closer examination of the period suggests that 190 AD is more scientifically accurate, as there was a formative process before the emergence of the three states. The Three Kingdoms were a continuation of the Eastern Han dynasty. In the late Eastern Han, the rapid development of landlord land ownership, intense land consolidation, and the mutual interference and strife between the eunuch and foreign relative factions further darkened politics and corrupted the court. Combined with relentless military campaigns against the Qiang ethnic group and continuous natural disasters, class contradictions sharpened, ultimately leading to the Yellow Turban Rebellion in 184 AD. Under the leadership of Zhang Jiao, Zhang Bao, and Zhang Liang, the rebel forces quickly grew, posing a severe threat to the Eastern Han regime. Emperor Ling was alarmed and dispatched troops to suppress the Yellow Turbans. He first appointed He Jin, the brother of Empress He, as the Grand General, stationing him near Luoyang, sending Lu Zhi to attack Zhang Jiao in Hebei, and sending Huangfu Shi and Zhu She to Yingchuan (modern-day Yucheng, Henan) to fight the Yellow Turban forces led by Bo Cai. In the Battle of Yingchuan, Bo Cai's forces fought bravely but were ultimately defeated by Huangfu Shi and Huangfu Chen after several setbacks. Later, Huangfu Chen used fire attacks during a windy day, disarraying the peasant army and causing the deaths of tens of thousands of rebels. Bo Cai was eventually killed in battle. In Hebei, Zhang Jiao's forces fought against Lu Zhi for a considerable period, with neither side gaining the upper hand. Emperor Ling, suspecting Lu Zhi's incompetence and fearing Zhang Jiao's rebellion would threaten Luoyang, replaced him with Dong Zhuo and Huangfu Chen, launching large-scale attacks on Zhang Jiao. Huangfu Chen lured the peasant army into a trap and launched a surprise attack at night. Due to the rebels' lack of combat experience and insufficient defenses, over 80,000 rebels were killed. The peasant army retreated to Xiayu (modern-day Jin County, Hebei) and continued to fight against Huangfu Chen. However, due to the vast disparity in resources, the rebels suffered heavy losses, with over a hundred thousand killed. Zhang Jiao, Zhang Liang, and Zhang Bao all perished, either in battle or from illness. Although the main force of the Yellow Turbans was defeated after nine months of fierce fighting and their leaders killed, they did not suffer a complete defeat. Many remnants continued to fight in different regions until 192 AD, when over 300,000 Yellow Turbans remained in Qingzhou (modern-day Linzi, Zibo, Shandong). In 205 AD, the allied Black Mountain Army still had over 100,000 soldiers. Together, these over 400,000 peasant forces continued to resist for a long time. The Yellow Turban Rebellion failed, but it significantly undermined the ruling order of the Eastern Han dynasty, plunging it into a state of decay and accelerating its collapse. In 189 AD, Emperor Ling died, and the young Emperor was ascended. At the time, due to the immense power of the eunuchs, Grand General He Jin sought to control their influence by inviting Dong Zhuo, who was entrenched in Hedong (modern-day southwestern Shanxi), to the capital, strengthening the power of the foreign relatives. However, the plan was leaked, and He Jin was killed by the eunuchs. Yuan Shao retaliated with his troops, killing over 2,000 eunuchs. Soon after, Dong Zhuo entered Luoyang, deposed the young emperor, and installed Emperor Xian. Dong Zhuo was even more brutal to the people, completely disregarding the Han court officials, showing signs of replacing the Han dynasty. In response, many political ambitious figures took the name of suppressing Dong Zhuo to expand their own power. In 196 AD, Cao Cao escorted Emperor Xian to Xuchang, marking the beginning of the era of "holding the emperor to issue orders to the feudal lords." The Han dynasty henceforth existed in name only, and the Three Kingdoms period officially began. Cao Cao was eager to unify the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River, but Yuan Shao, who dominated the northern regions of Ji Province (modern-day central and southern Hebei) and You Province (modern-day northern Hebei, Beijing, and most of Liaoning), posed a significant obstacle to his plans. In 200 AD, the decisive strategic battle between Cao Cao and Yuan Shao took place at Guandu (modern-day Zhongmou, Henan). In the end, Cao Cao defeated Yuan Shao with a smaller force, removing a major obstacle. Over the following two to three years, Cao Cao completely eliminated the remnants of Yuan Shao's forces and achieved unification of the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River. Around the time of the Battle of Guandu, Sun Quan, in the south, inherited the foundations laid by his father and elder brother, dominating the lower reaches of the Yangtze River. Liu Bei, claiming descent from the Han imperial family, also did not remain idle during this period, actively planning and preparing for action while temporarily residing in Jing Province (modern-day most of Hubei and Hunan, and southwestern Henan) under Liu Biao. In 208 AD, shortly after the Battle of Guandu, Cao Cao, with ambitious plans, personally led his army south to attack Jing Province and pursue Liu Bei, while threatening Sun Quan. Liu Bei and Sun Quan, following the advice of Lu Su and Zhuge Liang, formed an alliance to fight against Cao Cao. Zhou Yu, the main general of the Wu army, set fire to dozens of Cao Cao's warships on the southern bank of the Yangtze River at Red Cliffs (modern-day Puyi, Hubei). Taking advantage of Cao Cao's disarray, the allied forces launched fierce attacks, defeating the numerically superior Cao Cao's army with fewer than 50,000 troops and achieving a comprehensive victory. Cao Cao was forced to retreat to the north. After the battle, Sun Quan's position in the south was consolidated, and Liu Bei seized parts of Jing Province, further west, and established control over Yi Province (modern-day Sichuan). By then, the situation of the three-way division had largely been set. In 220 AD, Cao Cao died, and his son Cao Pi succeeded him, deposing Emperor Xian and declaring himself emperor, establishing the state of Wei with Luoyang as its capital. In 221 AD, Liu Bei also declared himself emperor, establishing the state of Shu with Chengdu as its capital, which later became known in history as Shu-Han. In 222 AD, Sun Quan formally declared himself emperor, establishing the state of Wu with Jianye (modern-day Nanjing, Jiangsu) as its capital, marking the official formation of the three-way stalemate. After the formal establishment of the three states, large-scale wars decreased, and each state focused on political and economic reforms within its own region, suppressing fragmented separatist forces to consolidate its rule. In Wei, Cao Cao began economic reforms before the Battle of Guandu, focusing on agriculture and establishing (state-run farms) around Xuchang, which yielded significant results and provided abundant material conditions for later dominance. After Cao Pi became emperor, he expanded the scale of, constructed water conservancy projects, and developed rice paddies, accelerating the recovery and development of the social economy in the Yellow River region. Politically, Cao Cao advocated "valuing talent," promoting capable individuals. Cao Pi also recruited morally and intellectually outstanding figures, and during the Three Kingdoms period, the Cao family produced the most talent. In Wu, under Sun Quan's rule, large-scale were also conducted in the Jianghuai region, extensive water conservancy projects were developed in Zhejiang, and advanced production technologies were introduced from the north, greatly promoting the development of the lower Yangtze River region. Moreover, Sun Quan actively engaged in diplomatic activities to foster the prosperity and development of Wu. In Shu, Liu Bei appointed Zhuge Liang as his prime minister, actively developing production in Sichuan, assigning capable personnel to manage Dujiangyan, and constructing new water conservancy projects. To stabilize the rear, he worked to improve relations with ethnic minority regions in modern-day Guizhou and Yunnan, strengthening political, economic, and cultural ties between the Han and southwestern ethnic minorities. The three states of Wei, Shu, and Wu developed unevenly in politics, economy, military, culture, and diplomacy. Overall, Wei was stronger than Shu and Wu, so for a considerable period, Wu and Shu allied to resist Cao Cao. However, later, conflicts arose between Wu and Shu over the control of Jing Province. In 220 AD, Wu seized Jing Province and killed Guan Yu during Cao Cao's campaign against Wei. In response, Liu Bei personally led troops to attack Wu in 222 AD. The large-scale Battle of Yiling (modern-day northern Yicheng, Hubei) ended with Wu's victory and Shu's defeat. In 223 AD, Liu Bei died from overwork in Yong'an (modern-day Fengjie, Sichuan). Zhuge Liang, following the late emperor's command, supported Liu Bei's son Liu Shan and continued to adhere to the principle of allying with Wu to resist Wei, determined to seize the Central Plains and revitalize the Han dynasty. However, his multiple northern campaigns were unsuccessful. In 234 AD, Shu launched another northern campaign, and Wei sent Grand General Sima Yi to counter. The two armies engaged in a historic battle of wisdom and courage at Zhaozhuangyuan (southwest of Mei County, Shaanxi). As the battle reached a stalemate, Zhuge Liang died in the army, and Shu was unable to continue, reluctantly withdrawing. From then on, Shu's power gradually declined, while the Wei state came under the control of the Sima family. After Sima Yi's death, his sons Sima Shi and Sima Zhao (succeeded one another in power), isolating the emperor. In 263 AD, Shu was finally conquered by Wei. In 265 AD, Sima Zhao deposed the Wei emperor and established the Jin dynasty, later known as Emperor Wu of Jin, with Luoyang as its capital. In 280 AD, Sima Zhao gathered his troops to attack Jianye (modern-day Nanjing, Jiangsu), conquering Wu and ending the decades-long period of division and fragmentation since the Eastern Han dynasty. The establishment of Western Jin replaced the historical trinity of the Three Kingdoms with a brief period of Chinese unification. The Three Kingdoms period was an era of outstanding talent, producing not only numerous statesmen and military strategists but also philosophers, writers, and natural scientists. As a result, significant breakthroughs were achieved in politics, military, economy, and culture across the three states. Cao Cao was an outstanding figure on the political stage of the Three Kingdoms period. Even before the formation of the three states, he demonstrated exceptional political and military talent amid the warlord chaos. He leveraged various conditions to eliminate many warlord forces, reformed the shortcomings of the Eastern Han dynasty that no longer suited his political needs, involved lower and middle-ranking landlords in state affairs, gathered talent, suppressed strong clans, developed water conservancy, promoted production, and upheld unification, laying a solid foundation for the establishment of Wei. Militarily, Zhuge Liang was the epitome of the Three Kingdoms era. Before and after the formation of Shu, he was a pivotal military strategist capable of determining the outcome of battles. His extraordinary military talent was evident in the famous Longzhong Strategy, the alliance with Wu to resist Cao Cao, his assistance in Liu Bei's dominance, the establishment of Shu-Han, his governance of Shu under Liu Shan, the "seven captures of Meng Huo," and the "five expeditions to Qishan." His military thought holds an important place in the history of Chinese military thought. Philosophically, Wei led the development, pioneering the trend of (Daoist metaphysics). The "Three Mysteries"—the 《》 (Laozi), 《》 (Zhuangzi), and 《》 (I Ching)—were the classics of the metaphysicians of the time. Wang Bi (226–249 AD), styled Fusi, from Shanyang (modern-day Jiaozuo, Henan), was the founder of metaphysics. In his works such as the 《》 (Commentary on the Laozi), 《》 (Commentary on the I Ching), and 《》 (Brief Examples of the I Ching), he vigorously promoted the theory of "valuing the void," positing that the non-material "void" was the substance of all things in the universe, a form of objective idealism. From a practical standpoint, his advocacy of "non-action" () in accordance with "nature" lowered feudal moral norms to a secondary position, providing a theoretical basis for the greed of the feudal upper class and reflecting a certain decadent consciousness in the realm of thought. Despite this, his works and theories had a broad and profound influence on the history of Chinese philosophy. In the field of literature and art, the Cao family father and son were the most prominent. Cao Cao (155–220 AD), styled Mengde, from Pei Guo Qiao (modern-day Bozhou, Anhui), was not only a statesman and military strategist but also an outstanding poet and prose writer. His representative works, such as 《》 (Short Song), 《》 (Marching Out of Xia Gate), and 《》 (Self-Explanation of My Ambitions), hold a certain position in the history of Chinese poetry and prose and have had a significant impact. Lu Xun once praised Cao Cao as a master of literary reform. Cao Pi's 《·》 (Discourse on Literature) is the earliest extant monograph on literary criticism in China. Cao Zhi's five-character poems injected new content into Chinese poetry and also had a profound influence. Influenced by the Cao family, the "Seven Scholars of Jian'an" also made significant contributions to literary development. In science and medicine, there were also many talented individuals, such as Zhang Zhongjing and Hua Tuo, who were renowned medical masters of the time, as well as mechanical innovators like Ma Jun. They all held important positions in the history of Chinese science. In summary, the Three Kingdoms achieved remarkable accomplishments in politics, economy, military, and culture, which were passed down to later generations. The development of the Three Kingdoms of Wei, Shu, and Wu was uneven in terms of time. Wu, established by Sun Quan, lasted the longest, from 222 AD when Sun Quan declared himself king of Wu to 280 AD when Sun Hao surrendered to Western Jin, spanning fifty-nine years. Next was Wei, from 220 AD when Cao Pi declared himself emperor to 265 AD when Sima Zhao deposed the Wei emperor and established Western Jin, totaling forty-five years. Shu-Han had the shortest existence, from 221 AD when Liu Bei declared himself emperor to 263 AD when Liu Shan perished in the hands of Wei, lasting forty-three years. The complex historical process of the Three Kingdoms posed many challenges for later historians, and due to differences in their status, perspectives, and viewpoints, disputes arose over which state was the "" (orthodox). Some favored Wei over Shu, considering Wei the orthodox; others favored Shu over Wei, considering Shu the orthodox. In reality, there were indeed attempts by Wei and Shu to () each other, but due to various reasons, despite several wars, neither succeeded in doing so. Wu's role in these () efforts was less prominent, and the concept of "" did not involve it. In fact, the wars between the Three Kingdoms were all aimed at expanding their territories and seizing the leadership of the nation, making the concept of "" unnecessary. The history of the Three Kingdoms was intricate and complex, marked by the rise of outstanding figures and numerous events. 《》 (Records of the Three Kingdoms) is a historical record of the entire Three Kingdoms period. It covers a history of ninety years, from the first year of Emperor Xian's reign in the Eastern Han dynasty (190 AD) to the warlord conflicts. 《》 followed 《》 (Records of the Grand Historian) and 《》 (Book of Han), but was completed before 《》 (Later Han Book). Sima Qian's 《》 was a comprehensive history, while Ban Gu's 《》 was a dynastic history. 《》 divided the Three Kingdoms into three books: 《》 (Book of Wei), thirty volumes; 《》 (Book of Shu), fifteen volumes; and 《》 (Book of Wu), twenty volumes, totaling sixty-five volumes, creating a unique style within the genre of dynastic history. The entire 《》 is clearly structured, with concise and lucid language, often displaying literary flair in its portrayal of people and events. Chen Shou, styled Chengzuo, from Baxian Anhan (modern-day Nanfeng, Sichuan), was born in the eleventh year of the Jianxing era of Shu-Han (233 AD) and died in the seventh year of the Yuankang era of the Jin dynasty (297 AD). He served as the commandant of Guanlv in Shu and held various official positions in the Jin dynasty, including Court Historian and Censor-in-Chief. Before the Three Kingdoms period, histories of Wei and Wu already existed, such as the 《》 (Book of Wei) by Jin Wang Shen and the 《》 (Strategies of Wei) by Wei Yu Han, as well as the 《》 (Book of Wu) by Wu Wei Zhao. Chen Shou compiled the 《》 (Book of Wei), thirty volumes, and the 《》 (Book of Wu), twenty volumes, based on historical records of the time. As a native of Shu and a disciple of the historian Qiao Zhou, he had long focused on studying history and collecting and organizing Shu historical facts, eventually writing the 《》 (Book of Shu), fifteen volumes. These sixty-five volumes of Three Kingdoms history were combined into a single work titled 《》 (Records of the Three Kingdoms). Chen Shou, as a Jin official, was commissioned to write history, naturally considering Wei the orthodox, referring to its rulers as emperors and narrating them in "" (annals), while treating the rulers of Shu and Wu as mere "" (biographies). He also omitted or exaggerated the faults of the Jin rulers, which, compared to Sima Qian's satirical and revealing attitude in 《》 (Records of the Grand Historian), was clearly inferior. This was determined by their different positions and circumstances, as well as the limitations of history and class. The 《》 is renowned for its concise writing style, but its brevity sometimes resulted in oversimplification, making its historical accounts and depictions of figures less vivid and lifelike than 《》 (Records of the Grand Historian) and 《》 (Book of Han). Therefore, Qing scholar Li Ciming remarked in 《》 (Diary of Yue Manor): "Chengzuo was indeed a fine historian, but his intention to be concise led to excess in cutting, lacking in literary brilliance. The figures of the time were no less than those of the Qin and Han periods, yet Chang Sheng's 《》 (Records of the Grand Historian) was far more colorful, while Chengzuo's 《》 (Records of the Three Kingdoms) was dull and lacking in brilliance. Fan Wei Zong's 《》 (Later Han Book) was somewhat better." It should be said that Li's comments from the perspective of comparative historical research were objective. Over a hundred and thirty years after Chen Shou's death, Pei Songzhi of the Southern Dynasties period wrote annotations for 《》 (Records of the Three Kingdoms). Pei Songzhi (372–451 AD), styled Shiqi, from Wenxi County, Hedong (modern-day Wenxi, Shanxi), served as a middle secretary to the Song dynasty's Emperor Wen. He was also a renowned historian, commissioned by Emperor Wen to annotate 《》 (Records of the Three Kingdoms). He broke the traditional format of annotations, avoiding explanations of interpretations, institutions, and names, instead focusing on correcting errors and supplementing historical records. He cited over one hundred forty works from the Han, Wei, and Southern Dynasties periods, with the text exceeding the original by three times, and ensured the completeness of the quoted sources. More importantly, many of the original texts have been lost, but thanks to Pei Songzhi's extensive citations, they have been preserved, allowing later generations to glimpse the original work. The 《》 (Comprehensive Mirror for Aid in Government) by Sima Guang of the Song dynasty, which described the Battle of Red Cliffs, was a synthesis of the relevant biographies from Chen Shou's 《》 (Records of the Three Kingdoms) and the historical materials cited in Pei Songzhi's annotations. Therefore, we can say that Chen Shou's 《》 (Records of the Three Kingdoms) is an important work for later studies on the Three Kingdoms period, and Pei Songzhi's annotations are also valuable references for researching the history of the Three Kingdoms.