History of Chinese Chan Buddhism

Author: Yin Shun
Publisher:
Publishing Date: 1999-09-01
Features: Zen Buddhism, which developed from the transmission of Bodhidharma, holds an important and glorious page in the history of Chinese Buddhism and Chinese culture. However, the original meaning of Dharma's Zen, its developmental process, and the evolutionary journey from Indian Zen to Chinese Zen, as described by past Zen practitioners, have been brief and insufficient. The general understanding of Zen Buddhism today primarily includes the Linji and Caodong schools (with the Cloud Gate school occasionally mentioned in Southern Fujian). Linji Yixuan (died 866) and Dongshan Benji (died 869) were great Zen masters of the 9th century. Most of the known Zen Buddhist historical records are based on the Precious Grove Biographies (compiled around 801) and the Records of the Transmission of the Lamp (presented in 1004), the Records of the Authentic Transmission of the Dharma (presented in 1061), and others. The general of Zen history and Zen Buddhism formed around the Huichang Persecution of Buddhism (845), which led to the development of Chinese Zen Buddhism. However, from the first ancestor Dharma (preached the Dharma around 500 in Northern Wei) to the sixth ancestor Caotan Huineng (died 713), and down to the third generation of Huineng's lineage—Baizhang Huaihai (died 814), Youshan Weiyan (died 828), and Tianhuang Daowu (died 807)—there were about 350 years of continuous development and gradual adaptation, which marked the era of Dharma's Zen evolving into Chinese Zen. This is Zen Buddhism that represents the fusion of Chinese and Indian cultures, or what is hailed as the essence of Eastern culture, and it is worthy of everyone's attention and research. The actual state of Zen Buddhism from Dharma to the Huichang Persecution (350 years) has long been based on the legends of the Hongzhou Dao Gate. The legends of the Heze Shenhui Gate, such as the Compendium of the Great Awakening Sutra, have been preserved to some extent but have not received much attention. Over time, legends became the sole historical records. In modern times, the study of Zen Buddhist history has entered a new phase, primarily due to the discovery of new materials. In 1912, Japan's Tangutsu Kyujokan published the Chart of the Lineage of Zen Masters and Teachers (15 sets of the first part) and the Biography of the Master of Caosi (19 sets of the second part), which were legends of the Caosi Gate under the Heze sect. At the same time, a large number of Tang-era manuscripts were discovered in the Dunhuang Grottoes. Those taken by Stein in 1907 were mostly stored in the British Museum in London. Those taken by Pelliot in 1908 were stored in the National Library in Paris. In 1914, the Chinese government also collected the remaining manuscripts and stored them in the Beijing Library. Japan also had a small collection. Among these manuscripts, there are many Zen Buddhist documents before the Huichang Persecution, thus introducing a new phase of research into Zen history. Among the Dunhuang manuscripts related to Zen history (biographies of the ancestors), those of the Northern Gate under Hongren's lineage, such as the Records of the Transmission of the Dharma, were written around 7713 by Du Xun, a disciple of the Northern Gate (largely representing Fa Ru). There is also the Records of the Teachers and Masters of the Lengga Sutra by Jingjue (around 720), a disciple of Hongren and Xuan Zhai. Those of the Heze sect, such as the Argument on the Non-Existence of the South and North Schools by Du Guoping (the current version is a revised edition by Shenhui in the late 760s), and the Records of Shenhui from Dunhuang (a different version of the Questions and Answers of the Master of Nanyang by Shi Jing, published in 1932 by Ishii Kozo), which actually represent different versions of the Questions and Answers of the Master of Nanyang. The Shi Jing edition includes biographies of the six generations of masters, passed down by Heze Shenhui. Those of the Bao Tang sect, such as the Records of the Transmission of the Dharma through Generations, written around 775, which records the lineage of Zizhou Zhishun under Hongren. The founder of the Bao Tang sect, Wuzhu, claimed to be a disciple of Caosi Huineng. These records of the Northern Gate, Heze sect, and Bao Tang sect, along with the Biography of the Master of Caosi passed down by the Heze sect, the Chart of the Lineage of Zen Masters and Teachers, and the Compendium of the Great Awakening Sutra (Volume 3) passed down by the Heze sect, when compared with the inscriptions related to Zen Buddhism in the Complete Collection of Tang Writings, and the Precious Grove Biographies (Qishan edition, published in 1924), a comprehensive comparative study can provide a more accurate Zen history from Dharma to the division under Huineng.
Regarding the Dharma of Zen masters, the main works include: those representing the Northern Gate of Shengxiu, such as various versions of the Great Vehicle of Immeasurable Birth and the Discourse on Observing the Mind attributed to Shengxiu. Those representing the Heze sect, such as the Compendium of the Questions and Answers of the Master of Nanyang collected by Liu Cheng (published by Hu Shi as the Collected Works of Shenhui) and the Direct Teaching of the Mind in the Zen Gate of the Master of Nanyang. Those representing the Bao Tang sect, such as the Records of the Transmission of the Dharma through Generations. This is a Records of the Transmission of the Lamp, preserving the Dharma of Jingzun under Jingzun, and numerous discourses by Wuzhu of the Bao Tang sect. The three works—Records of the Transmission of the Dharma, Records of the Teachers and Masters of the Lengga Sutra, and the Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch Huineng at Daxueshi Temple in Shaoguan—provide invaluable materials. The Records of the Transmission of the Dharma and the Records of the Teachers and Masters of the Lengga Sutra are early Records of the Transmission of the Lamp from the Northern Gate, yet they reveal the basis of the South Gate's sudden enlightenment Zen. The Records of the Teachers and Masters of the Lengga Sutra preserve the Brief Explanation of the Path to Enlightenment and the Mind passed down from Huige, which is believed to be the original draft of the Discourse on the Mind (or titled as the Discourse on the Superior Vehicle) attributed to Hongren. This clarifies Dharma's "Li Ru" (the rational entry) in his "Two Entrances and Four Practices," representing the essence of the Lengga Zen school. In the lineage of Daoxin, it preserves the Great Vehicle of Entering the Path and Securing the Mind, which provides a good reference for the different transmissions of Daoxin's Zen style and the distinct developments of the Dongshan lineage (North and South schools). Studying the Platform Sutra, it can be confirmed that the "Platform Sutra" tradition of the Heze sect is based on the "Southern Principle" version; and the "Southern Principle" version has already been somewhat modified from the "Original Caosi" version. The differences between Heze Zen studies (such as the Platform Sutra and the Collected Works of Shenhui) and the "Southern Principle" can lead to the conclusion that the "direct revelation of the mind-nature" in Caosi Zen led to the division of Heze's "silence and knowledge of the body, non-mind as the sect," and Hongzhou's "touching the category is the way and letting the mind go."
Additionally, representing the Jiangdong Nántou sect, there are the Discourse on the Severance of Views and the Discourse on the Inaction of the Mind. The newly discovered Dunhuang manuscripts, along with the old ones (from the Hongzhou and Shitou lineages) such as the discourses of Huai Rang, Xingsi, Daoyi, and Xitian, Baizhang Huaihai's Extensive Discourses, Yuezhou Huihai's Discourse on Sudden Enlightenment into the Path, and Huangbo Xiyun's Discourse on the Transmission of the Mind, provide clues for understanding the evolution of Zen Buddhist methods and adaptations over time.
The evolutionary journey from Indian Zen to Chinese Zen, these 8th and 9th-century Zen Buddhist texts have provided ample research materials. Based on the 8th and 9th-century Zen Buddhist documents, Chinese and Japanese scholars have already made significant contributions. I am not a descendant of Dharma or Caosi, nor do I have an interest in speculating on public cases or empty discussions on Zen theory. Last year, the Central Daily News published a debate on whether the Platform Sutra was created by Shenhui or represented Huineng, which drew my attention to Zen history. After reading Hu Shi's Collected Works of Shenhui and the parts related to Zen Buddhist history in Hushi's Collected Works and Hushi's Manuscripts, along with the works of Japanese scholars such as Yuichi Hisao's Studies on the History of Zen Buddhism in China (three volumes), Guanpo Shindai's Studies on Dharma Master Taomo and Studies on the Discourse of Dharma Master Taomo, and Yotsuba Koyama's Studies on the Early Zen Buddhist Texts of China, the collection and processing of new materials have greatly helped my research. However, I feel that the history of Zen Buddhism from Dharma to the Huichang era, or the evolutionary journey from Indian Zen to Chinese Zen (perhaps due to my limited knowledge), still requires thorough research!
Zen history should include two main parts: the deeds and lineage of Zen masters, and the expedient means and evolution of Zen methods. Regarding the first part, it must be acknowledged that Zen masters emphasized lineage. The common belief of ancient Zen masters was that their enlightenment (Zen) came from the Buddha. They valued the unbroken lineage of the Dharma, so in addition to the transmission in China, the lineage from the Buddha to Dharma was also highly regarded. As Dharma's Zen developed, the compilation of the lineage became more urgent. The Indian lineage was already forgotten by Dharma's disciples. At that time, they generally referred to the Preface to the Zen Sutra, the Legend of the Transmission of the Dharma, and the Memoirs of the Sarvastivada School to propose the Indian lineage of the Dharma. Originally, as long as it was truly passed down by Dharma and truly was the Dharma, it would suffice. For example, my father's name, my grandfather, great-grandfather, and great-great-grandfather—all of whom I know—but those above are forgotten, and there is no way to trace them. What does it matter? I am not a descendant of the ancestors. However, Zen masters cannot do this; to meet the demands of the times, they had to list the ancestors. This could only involve referring to classical texts—such as the three mentioned above—or it would lead to misunderstandings (such as identifying Dharma Tathagata as Bodhidharma). If a problem arose, they had to rely on imagination to fabricate the lineage. The lineage, or considered an important part of Zen Buddhism, seems that if there is a problem with the lineage, Zen Buddhism might be overturned. In reality, the existence and development of Zen Buddhism were not based on these lineage theories. For example, the compilation of the Precious Grove Biographies certainly gave strong support to the Hongzhou sect, yet the Precious Grove Biographies had not yet been compiled, and the theory of the 28 ancestors from India had not yet become a conclusion (the Dao Gate lineage still referenced over 50 ancestors). The prevalence of Jiangxi Zen methods had already become the mainstream of Zen methods. The gradual formation of the lineage theory was due to the popularity of Dharma's Zen, to meet the general requirements, and to ensure the certainty of the Zen lineage. Just as emperors always traced their lineage to ancient emperors or sages to enhance the glory of their family trees, the Tang imperial family with Turkic ancestry also claimed Laozi as their ancestor. The legends of the lineage may be far from the facts, but they are unrelated to the actual transmission of Zen methods.
In China, Dharma passing down to Huige is mentioned in the Continuation of the Biographies of Eminent Monks without question. The transmission from Huige to Hongren is the earliest record preserved—the Biography of the Monk Fahu like of the Central Mountain—a work from the late 7th century. From Hongren onwards, the transmission of the Dharma was "secretly passed" and the receiving of the Dharma was "secretly received," with no third party aware. Outstanding Zen masters would naturally reveal their confidence in having attained the Dharma, and thus the different transmissions of Zen methods spread. Ultimately, who was the mainstream and who was the branch had to be determined by the efforts of the Zen masters and their disciples (not just through promotion, but through self-transformation), and recognized by public consensus—that is, historical fact.
The deeds of Zen masters since Dharma were initially legends, recorded by disciples or later generations. Legends are inevitably diverse: the different perspectives (or sects) of the storytellers led to additions, revisions, or omissions in the legends. The diversity of legends, combined with the imaginative additions of the storytellers or the establishment of new theories for religious purposes (which were mostly gradually formed), made the legends even more complex. From legends to records, ancient copying was difficult, and the transmission was not easy. Later authors did not necessarily copy the works of their predecessors or deliberately altered the legends of their predecessors. The biographies of ancient Zen masters went through the legends. Some scholars ignored the diversity of legends (records), so they either narrated the existing works linearly, assuming later authors referred to earlier ones despite their distant regions or close chronological proximity, or overvalued the Biographies of Eminent Monks. The study of the deeds of ancient Zen masters should aim to obtain a legend closer to the facts.
The expedient means and evolution of Zen methods should be an important part of Zen history. What is the Dharma (Zen)? The scriptures once used a metaphor: someone discovered "the ancient road" in the wilderness, followed it, and found cities and the palaces of ancient kings. Then they returned and persuaded the king to move the capital to the ancient palaces, where "abundance, peace, and prosperity, and people thrived." This means that the Dharma is the fact of self-awareness and experience. The Buddha discovered, realized, and reached the ultimate liberation and freedom. To benefit the masses, he used expedient means to guide others to reach the state of liberation. From the Buddha's (ancestors) state of self-awareness, it is beyond the power of knowledge, language, and script. Just as discovering the ancient palaces, how can one describe it to others? Even if others acknowledge it as a fact, it does not equal personal experience. To verify it, one must go there themselves. In this regard, the Dharma (Zen) is not only beyond textual research but also beyond theoretical explanation. Discussing Zen theory or talking about Zen flavor is equally irrelevant. Yet, the Dharma is not just self-experience (the essence), but it is expressed (the teaching), and the Dharma has become a real human Dharma in time and space. Pointing out that it is not the moon but can draw attention to the moon and discover it. Therefore, the content of self-experience, despite being "like one thing is not in the middle," can still be expressed. Whether through language and script (positive statements, rhetorical questions, or meaningless words) or through silence, gestures, or actions, they are all used as a means to attract and engage. Self-awareness belongs to self-certification—it is "not taught by others," "not relying on words," and "transmitted through the mind." From the perspective of guiding methods ("not establishing a sect leader, not opening doors and windows," "not establishing one method"), it exists in the human world, becoming the Zen style of a certain era, region, sect, or school. This is something that can be traced and examined, revealing the historical facts of Zen in its development. The different methods of attracting and engaging are, in fact, based on certain principles, so the scriptures describe them as "the ancient immortal path," "the one vehicle," "the one gate," and "the non-dual gate." If one wants to leave a room, one can go through the door, window, break the wall, remove the roof, dig a tunnel, or even pass through a gap, but there is an unable rule to pass through the gap. The diversity of expedient means does not represent different contents of self-awareness. If one does not understand the relative nature of self-awareness and expedient means, there may be doubts about the past: for example, Dharma master Daoguang Ying believed that Dharma's expedient means were like this, and thus ignored historical facts to deny the transmission of the four Lengga volumes. There may also be doubts about the present: for example, valuing Dharma's Lengga Sutra and "two entrances and four practices," if Huineng encouraged people to hold the Diamond Sutra, it was thought to be a revolution, or that Huineng's sudden enlightenment Zen had a different source.
The study of Zen history must clarify the transcendental and timeless self-awareness and the expedient means and evolution in the real space-time (history) to properly handle the historical facts of Zen Buddhism. From Dharma's "Li Ru" (rational entry) of realizing the "true nature" to Huineng's "self-nature" (originally "Dharma nature" or "Buddha nature"), the Southern Principle's "nature in action," Dharma's lineage has been a consistent "Tathagata (Alaya) Zen." The Tathagata (Alaya) is easy to explain in simple terms but profound in meaning. Therefore, the experience of the Tathagata (Alaya) varies from shallow to profound. Shallow experience is similar to the god-self view of external paths (as Huizong National Master criticized the Southern Principle), while profound experience is the "cessation of all delusions" (as the scripture says: "the place of no discrimination and no image"). Formerly, Huangbo Xiyun said: "Under Master Ma, there were eighty-eight people who sat in meditation, but only three or two truly attained Master Ma's true eye" (Records of the Transmission of the Lamp, Volume 9). The ultimate depth of Caosi Zen was attained by very few. Huineng led people toward simplicity and directness, and simplicity and directness are easy to popularize and spread, so the Southern Principle flourished in this way.
Zen masters emphasize self-awareness, relying on a single phrase "transmission outside the teaching" or "mind over tradition," the original meaning of the Buddha's teachings and the content of their own experience became increasingly obscure! After the Huichang Persecution, Chinese Zen Buddhism was the Chineseization of Dharma's Zen, mainly the Taoistization and metaphysicalization of Laozi and Zhuangzi. Huineng's simplicity, pointing directly to the liberation of the current moment (the "non-attachment"), opened the way for the Chineseization of Dharma's Zen. The completion of this tendency was the Hongzhou sect, especially the Shitou sect. Dharma's lineage did not emphasize precepts or scriptures (or "other power"), which was the general tendency of Zen masters. "The mind is the Buddha," "no cultivation, no certification," are common topics in the Mahayana scriptures. The "non-attachment of knowledge" under Heze and the "functioning to see the nature" under Hongzhou were still the expedient means of Indian Zen masters. Dharma's Zen maintained its Indian Zen characteristics and finally became Chinese through the absorption of Nántou Zen studies. The "Dao is based on emptiness" of Laozi and Zhuangzi (as metaphysicians said) had taken root deeply since the Jin and Wei dynasties. With the southward relocation of the Jin court, metaphysics became the center of Jiangdong. The flourishing of Chinese Buddhism was due to the emptiness of the Prajna and the metaphysics of the time, which had long maintained a certain relationship. It was natural and inevitable for the Dharma to adapt to Chinese culture when it spread in China. Therefore, Chinese Buddhism, in addition to the Indian transmission with strict theory and system, such as precepts, Vinaya, (the Yogacara of Paramartha and Xuanzang), was somewhat influenced. However, Zen Buddhism in China was thoroughly Chineseized. The symbol of the Nántou sect is "the Dao is based on emptiness" and "the Dao of inaction." The Nántou first ancestor, Fa Rong, known as the "Dharma Master Taomo of Eastern Xia," represented the Jiangdong Prajna tradition—"originally empty"—from Sheshan to Maoshan, and from Maoshan to Nántou Mountain, gradually flourishing in the Zen gate. The Nántou sect was very close to Jiangdong metaphysics. The rise of the Nántou sect was in opposition to the Dongshan sect of "the mind is the Buddha" and "the mind is pure and becomes Buddha," which came from Dharma's lineage (from Dharma to Huineng). The Caosi lineage under Huineng was influenced and proposed the moderate stance of "the mind is the Buddha" and "the Dao of inaction." "Emptiness becomes Buddha" and "emptiness preaches" gradually infiltrated the Caosi lineage. The Caosi lineage, especially the Qingyuan Shitou lineage, had a deep relationship with Nántou, and at first, they were considered the same (extinction of attachment) sect style. Caosi Zen in Jiangnan (after the Huichang Persecution, almost all of Jiangnan belonged to the Shitou lineage) absorbed Nántou, and Nántou Zen disappeared. Caosi Zen absorbed Nántou and also absorbed Laozi and Zhuangzi, becoming the Chinese Zen Buddhism that utterly destroyed (discrimination) knowledge and avoided fabrication, focusing on self-benefit and neglecting altruistic actions.
Dharma's Zen flourished under Daoxin (the fourth ancestor). Through Daoxin, Hongren, and Huineng, Zen Buddhism became the mainstream of Chinese Buddhism. Daoxin, Hongren, and Huineng all had outstanding expedient means, but this was the result of inheriting the past and opening the future, evolving and transforming. The prosperity of Zen Buddhism led to opposition and division, such as the opposition between Nántou and Dongshan, the South and North schools, and Hongzhou and Heze. In the process of development and division, they were unified under the Caosi lineage in Jiangnan, which is why "all Zen in the world originates from Caosi." The focus of this book is on the evolution from Indian Zen to Chinese Zen. The Indian Zen transmitted by Dharma, from Dharma to Huineng, although the expedient means evolved continuously, remained a consistent Tathagata (Alaya) Zen. Under Huineng's lineage, which developed in Jiangnan, it gradually took on a new face and became Chinese Zen, influenced by Nántou Zen (which was also Laozi and Zhuangzi). In the history of Chinese Zen Buddhism, Nántou Zen has a special significance that cannot be ignored. I am not a specialist in Zen history or the relationship between Buddhism and Chinese culture, and I do not intend to provide a fully specific explanation. This book only reveals the key points and presents them to scholars who study the history of Zen Buddhism!