Romance of the Three Kingdoms (Volumes 1-5) -- Traditional vertical layout (New)

Author: (Jin) Chen Shou compiled, (Song) Pei Songzhi annotated
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Features: The Three Kingdoms period was a distinctive era in the historical development of China's feudal society, marked by the dominance of the three states—Wei, Shu, and Wu. The history of the Three Kingdoms spanned approximately ninety years, from the warlord chaos in 190 AD to the unification of the southern region by the Jin dynasty in 280 AD. However, some historians consider the year 220 AD, when Cao Pi declared himself emperor, as the starting point. A closer examination of the Three Kingdoms' history suggests that 190 AD is a more scientific beginning, as there was indeed a period of formation before the emergence of the three states. The Three Kingdoms were a continuation of the Eastern Han Dynasty. In the late Eastern Han, the land ownership system of powerful landlords and land consolidation intensified. The mutual interference and strife between the eunuchs and the foreign relatives further exacerbated political darkness and court corruption. Combined with relentless military campaigns against the Qiang ethnic group and continuous natural disasters, class contradictions sharpened, ultimately leading to the Yellow Turban Rebellion in 184 AD. Under the leadership of Zhang Jiao, Zhang Bao, and Zhang Liang, the rebel forces rapidly expanded, posing a serious threat to the Eastern Han Dynasty. Emperor Ling was alarmed and dispatched troops to suppress the Yellow Turbans. He first appointed He Jin, the brother-in-law of Empress He, as the Grand General, stationing him near Luoyang. He also sent Lu Zhi to attack Zhang Jiao in Hebei and sent Huangfu Song and Zhu Xian to Yingchuan (modern Yucheng County, Henan) to fight the Yellow Turban forces led by Bo Cai. In the battle of Yingchuan, Bo Cai's forces fought bravely but were eventually defeated by Huangfu Song and Zhu Xian. Later, Huangfu Song used fire attacks during a windy day, disarraying the peasant army and causing the deaths of tens of thousands of rebels. Bo Cai was eventually killed in battle. In Hebei, Zhang Jiao's forces fought with Lu Zhi's army for a considerable period, with neither side gaining an advantage. Fearing that Zhang Jiao's peasant rebellion might attack Luoyang, Emperor Ling replaced Lu Zhi with Dong Zhuo and Huangfu Song, launching large-scale attacks on Zhang Jiao. Huangfu Song used cunning tactics to deceive the peasant army and launched a surprise attack at night. Due to the rebels' lack of combat experience and insufficient defenses, they suffered heavy losses, with over 80,000 rebels killed. The peasant army was forced to retreat to Xiayu (modern west Jin County, Hebei) and continued to fight against Huangfu Song. However, due to the vast disparity in resources, the peasant army suffered tens of thousands of casualties. Zhang Jiao, Zhang Liang, and Zhang Bao died or fell ill. Although the main force of the Yellow Turbans was crushed by the imperial army and their leaders were killed, they did not suffer a complete defeat. Many remnants of the Yellow Turbans continued to fight in different regions until 192 AD, when there were still over 300,000 Yellow Turbans in Qingzhou (modern northeast Lixi, Zibo City, Shandong). In 205 AD, the allied Black Mountain Army still had over 100,000 soldiers. In total, over 400,000 peasant rebels continued to fight for a long time. The Yellow Turban Rebellion failed, but it largely dismantled the ruling order of the Eastern Han Dynasty, plunging it into a state of exhaustion and accelerating its collapse. In 189 AD, Emperor Ling died, and the young Emperor was ascended. At that time, due to the immense power of the eunuchs, Grand General He Jin sought to control their influence by inviting Dong Zhuo, who was entrenched in Hedong (modern southwestern Shanxi), to the capital, strengthening the power of the foreign relatives. However, the plan was leaked, and He Jin was killed by the eunuchs. Yuan Shao retaliated with his troops, killing over 2,000 eunuchs. Soon after, Dong Zhuo entered Luoyang, deposed the young Emperor, and installed Emperor Xian. Dong Zhuo was even more brutal to the people, completely disregarding the Han court officials, and showed signs of replacing the Han dynasty. Many political ambitious individuals took the name of suppressing Dong Zhuo to expand their own power. In 196 AD, Cao Cao escorted Emperor Xian to Xuchang, marking the beginning of the era of "holding the emperor to issue orders to the feudal lords." From then on, the Han dynasty existed in name only, and the Three Kingdoms period officially began. Cao Cao was eager to unify the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River, but Yuan Shao, who dominated the northern regions of Ji Province (modern central and southern Hebei) and You Province (modern northern Hebei, Beijing, and most of Liaoning), posed a significant obstacle to his plans. In 200 AD, the decisive battle of Guandu (modern Zhongmou, Henan) was fought between Cao Cao and Yuan Shao. In the end, Cao Cao defeated Yuan Shao with a smaller force, eliminating a major obstacle. Over the following two to three years, Cao Cao completely eliminated the remnants of Yuan Shao's forces and achieved unification of the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River. Around the time of the Battle of Guandu, Sun Quan, in the south, inherited the legacy of his father and elder brother, dominating the lower reaches of the Yangtze River. Liu Bei, who claimed descent from the Han imperial family, also did not remain idle during this period, actively planning and preparing for action while temporarily residing in Jing Province (modern most of Hubei and Hunan, and southwestern Henan) under Liu Biao. In 208 AD, shortly after the Battle of Guandu, Cao Cao, with ambitious plans, personally led his army south to attack Jing Province and pursue Liu Bei. He also threatened Sun Quan, beginning to realize his plan to unify the entire country. Liu Bei and Sun Quan, following the advice of Lu Su and Zhuge Liang, formed an alliance to fight against Cao Cao. Zhou Yu, the main general of the Wu army, set fire to dozens of Cao Cao's warships on the southern bank of the Yangtze River at Red Cliffs (modern Puyi County, Hubei), and the combined forces of Sun and Liu launched fierce attacks, defeating Cao Cao's army of over 200,000 with a force of less than 50,000, achieving a comprehensive victory. Cao Cao was forced to retreat to the north. After the battle, Sun Quan's position in the south was consolidated, and Liu Bei seized parts of Jing Province and further west, gaining Yi Province (modern Sichuan and other areas). By then, the division of the three realms was largely established. In 220 AD, Cao Cao died, and his son Cao Pi succeeded him, deposing Emperor Xian and declaring himself emperor, establishing the state of Wei with Luoyang as its capital. In 221 AD, Liu Bei also declared himself emperor, establishing the state of Shu with Chengdu as its capital, which later became known as Shu-Han in history. In 222 AD, Sun Quan formally declared himself emperor, establishing the state of Wu with Jianye (modern Nanjing, Jiangsu) as its capital, marking the official formation of the three states. After the formal establishment of the three states, large-scale wars decreased, and each state focused on political, economic, and other reforms within its own region, suppressing scattered separatist forces to consolidate its rule. In Wei, Cao Cao began economic reforms before the Battle of Guandu, focusing on agriculture and establishing (state-owned farmland) in Xuchang, which yielded significant results and provided abundant material conditions for later dominance. After Cao Pi became emperor, he expanded the scale of, constructed water conservancy projects, and developed rice paddies, leading to rapid recovery and development of the socioeconomic conditions in the Yellow River region. Politically, Cao Cao advocated "valuing talent regardless of origin," promoting a group of capable individuals. Cao Pi also recruited morally and intellectually outstanding figures, and during the Three Kingdoms period, the Cao family had the most talented individuals. In Wu, ruled by Sun Quan, large-scale was also carried out in the Jianghuai region, extensive water conservancy projects were constructed in Zhejiang Province, and advanced production technologies were introduced from the north, greatly promoting the development of the lower Yangtze River region. Moreover, Sun Quan actively engaged in diplomatic activities to enhance the prosperity and development of Wu. In Shu, Liu Bei appointed Zhuge Liang as the Prime Minister and actively developed production in Sichuan, dispatching capable personnel to manage Dujiangyan and construct new water conservancy projects. To stabilize the rear, he also improved relations with ethnic minority regions in modern Guizhou and Yunnan, strengthening political, economic, and cultural ties between the Han and southwestern ethnic minorities. The Three Kingdoms developed unevenly in politics, economy, military, culture, and diplomacy. Overall, Wei was stronger than Shu and Wu, so for a considerable period, Wu and Shu allied to resist Cao Cao. However, later, due to conflicts over Jing Province, Wu and Shu developed tensions. In 220 AD, Wu seized Jing Province and killed Guan Yu during an opportunity when Guan Yu was fighting against Wei. In response, Liu Bei personally led his troops to attack Wu in 222 AD. The armies of Wu and Shu fought a large-scale battle in Yiling (north of Yidu, Hubei). The Battle of Yiling ended with Wu's victory and Shu's defeat. In 223 AD, Liu Bei fell ill and died in Yong'an (modern Fengjie, Sichuan) after years of hard work. Following the command of the late emperor, Zhuge Liang supported Liu Bei's son Liu Shan, continuing to adhere to the principle of allying with Wu to resist Wei and striving to reclaim the Central Plains to revitalize the Han dynasty. However, his multiple northern campaigns were unsuccessful. In 234 AD, Shu launched another northern campaign, and Wei dispatched Grand General Sima Yi to counterattack. The two armies engaged in a battle of wisdom and courage at Zhaozhuangyuan (southwest of Mei County, Shaanxi). As the battle reached a stalemate, Zhuge Liang, the strategist of Shu, died in battle, leaving the Shu army unable to continue. They were forced to retreat. From then on, Shu's power gradually declined, while the Wei state came under the control of the Sima family. After Sima Yi's death, his sons Sima Shi and Sima Zhao came to power, effectively sidelining the emperor. In 263 AD, Shu was finally conquered by Wei. In 265 AD, Sima Yan deposed the Wei emperor and established the Jin dynasty, later known as Emperor Wu of Jin, with Luoyang as its capital. In 280 AD, Sima Yan gathered his troops to attack Jianye (modern Nanjing, Jiangsu), defeating Wu and ending the decades-long period of division and fragmentation since the Eastern Han dynasty. The establishment of Western Jin replaced the historical trinity of the Three Kingdoms and brought about a brief period of unification in China. The Three Kingdoms period was an era of outstanding talent, where not only numerous political and military figures but also philosophers, writers, and natural scientists emerged during the long political and military struggles. As a result, significant breakthroughs were achieved in politics, military, economy, and culture across the Three Kingdoms. Cao Cao was an outstanding representative of the political stage during the Three Kingdoms period. Even before the formation of the Three Kingdoms, he demonstrated remarkable political and military talents amid the warlord chaos. He utilized various conditions to eliminate many warlord forces, reformed the shortcomings of the Eastern Han dynasty that no longer suited his political needs, and recruited lower and middle-class landlords to participate in the governance of the state. He networked talents, suppressed powerful families, developed water conservancy, promoted production, and upheld unity, laying a solid foundation for the establishment of Wei. Militarily, Zhuge Liang was a typical figure of the Three Kingdoms era. Before the formation of Shu, he was a decisive military strategist who could determine the outcome of battles. His extraordinary military talent was evident in the famous Longzhong Strategy, the alliance with Sun Quan to resist Cao Cao, his assistance in Liu Bei's dominance, the establishment of Shu-Han, his governance of Shu under Liu Shan, the "seven captures of Meng Huo," and the "five campaigns to Qi Mountain." His military thought holds an important position in the history of Chinese military thought. Philosophically, Wei was the most advanced, pioneering the trend of (Daoist metaphysics). The "Three Mysteries"—the "Laozi," "Zhuangzi," and "Yi Jing"—were considered classics by the metaphysicians of the time. Wang Bi (226–249 AD), styled Fusi, from Shanyang (modern Jiaozuo, Henan), was the founder of metaphysics. In his works such as the "Commentary on the Laozi," "Commentary on the Yi Jing," and "Brief Examples of the Yi Jing," he vigorously advocated the theory of "valuing the void," proposing that the non-material "void" was the substance of the universe, a form of objective idealism. From a practical perspective, his advocacy of "non-action" () in accordance with "nature" lowered feudal moral norms to a secondary position, providing a theoretical basis for the greed of feudal elites and reflecting a certain decline in consciousness. Nevertheless, his works and theories had a broad and profound influence on the history of Chinese philosophy. In the field of literature and art, the Cao family father and son were the most prominent. Cao Cao (155–220 AD), styled Mengde, from Pei Guo, Qiao (modern Bozhou, Anhui), was not only a statesman and military strategist but also an outstanding litterateur and prose writer. His representative works, such as "Short Song," "Step Out of Xia Gate," and "Self-Explanation of My Ambitions," hold a certain position in the history of Chinese poetry and prose and have had a significant impact. Lu Xun once praised Cao Cao as a master of literary reform. Cao Pi's "Discourse on Literature" is the earliest existing monograph on literary criticism in China. Cao Zhi's five-character poems injected new content into Chinese poetry and had a profound influence. Influenced by the Cao family, the "Seven Scholars of Jian'an" also made significant contributions to the development of literature at the time. In science and medicine, there were also many talented individuals, such as Zhang Zhongjing and Hua Tuo, who were renowned medical masters of the time, as well as mechanical engineer Ma Jun. They all held important positions in the history of Chinese science. In summary, the Three Kingdoms achieved remarkable accomplishments in politics, economy, military, culture, and other fields, which were passed down to later generations. The development of the Three Kingdoms was uneven, with varying durations. Wu, established by Sun Quan, lasted the longest, from 222 AD when Sun Quan became the king of Wu to 280 AD when Sun Hao surrendered to Western Jin, spanning fifty-nine years. Next was Wei, from 220 AD when Cao Pi declared himself emperor to 265 AD when Sima Yan deposed the Wei emperor and established Western Jin, totaling forty-five years. Shu-Han had the shortest existence, from 221 AD when Liu Bei declared himself emperor to 263 AD when Liu Shan was defeated by Wei, totaling forty-three years. The complex historical process of the Three Kingdoms posed many challenges for later historians to study, and due to differences in status, perspectives, and viewpoints among historians, disputes arose over which state was the "orthodox" one. Some favored Wei over Shu, considering Wei the orthodox; others favored Shu over Wei, considering Shu the orthodox. In reality, there were indeed attempts by Wei and Shu to () each other, but due to various reasons, despite several wars, neither succeeded in doing so. Wu was less prominent in such () efforts, and the "orthodox" debate did not involve it. In fact, the wars between the Three Kingdoms were aimed at expanding their territories and seizing national leadership, making the concept of "orthodoxy" unnecessary. The history of the Three Kingdoms was intricate, with outstanding figures emerging one after another and numerous events. "Records of the Three Kingdoms" is a historical book that records the entire history of the Three Kingdoms. It chronicles the ninety years from the first year of Emperor Xian's reign in the Jiping era (190 AD), starting with the warlord chaos, to the end. "Records of the Three Kingdoms" followed the "Records of the Grand Historian" and the "Records of the Han Dynasty" but was completed before the "Records of the Later Han Dynasty." Sima Qian's "Records of the Grand Historian" was a comprehensive history, while Ban Gu's "Records of the Han Dynasty" was a dynastic history. "Records of the Three Kingdoms" divided the Three Kingdoms into three books: "Records of Wei" (thirty volumes), "Records of Shu" (fifteen volumes), and "Records of Wu" (twenty volumes), totaling sixty-five volumes, creating a unique style within the genre of dynastic history. The entire book has a clear narrative structure, concise and lucid language, and displays literary talent in describing people and events. The author of "Records of the Three Kingdoms" was Chen Shou, styled Chengzuo, from Baxian, Anhan (modern north of Nanchong, Sichuan), who lived from the eleventh year of the Jianxing era of Shu-Han's last ruler (233 AD) to the seventh year of the Yuankang era of the Jin dynasty's (297 AD). He served as the Commandant of Guanlv in Shu and held various positions after entering the Jin dynasty, including Court Historian and Censor-in-Chief. Before the Three Kingdoms period, histories of Wei and Wu already existed, such as the "Records of Wei" by Jin Wang Shen and the "Brief Records of Wei" by Wei Yu Han, as well as the "Records of Wu" by Wu Wei Zhao. Chen Shou compiled the "Records of Wei" (thirty volumes) and the "Records of Wu" (twenty volumes) based on historical records of the time. As a native of Shu and a disciple of the historian Qiao Zhou, he had long focused on studying history and collecting and organizing historical facts about Shu, which later led to the completion of the "Records of Shu" (fifteen volumes). These sixty-five volumes of Three Kingdoms history were combined into a single book called "Records of the Three Kingdoms." Chen Shou, as a Jin official, was commissioned to write history, naturally considering Wei the orthodox, referring to its rulers as emperors and narrating them in "jì" (annals), while only listing the rulers of Shu and Wu as "zhuàn" (biographies), and inevitably including biased praise or condemnation of the Jin rulers. Compared to Sima Qian's satirical and revealing attitude toward rulers in the "Records of the Grand Historian," this was clearly inferior. This was determined by their different positions and circumstances, as well as the limitations of history and class. "Records of the Three Kingdoms" is known for its concise writing style, but due to its brevity, it falls short of the vividness, vividness, and liveliness of the "Records of the Grand Historian" and the "Records of the Han Dynasty" in describing historical facts and figures. Therefore, the Qing scholar Li Ciming remarked in his "Diary of Yue Mantiang": "Chengzuo was indeed a good historian, but his intention was to be concise, resulting in more cutting than literary charm; the figures of the time were no less than those of the Qin and Han period, but Chang Sheng's 'Records of the Grand Historian' had a hundred times more brilliance, while Chengzuo's book was dull and lacked luster. Fan Wei Zong's 'Records of the Later Han Dynasty' was better." It should be said that Li's comments from the perspective of comparative historical research are objective. Over a hundred and thirty years after Chen Shou's death, Pei Songzhi, a historian of the Southern Dynasties period, wrote annotations for "Records of the Three Kingdoms." Pei Songzhi (372–451 AD), styled Shiqi, from Wenxi County, Hedong (modern Wenxi, Shanxi), served as the Vice Minister of the Secretariat during the Liu Song dynasty and was also a renowned historian. He was commissioned by Emperor Wen of Liu Song to annotate "Records of the Three Kingdoms." Pei Songzhi broke the traditional pattern of annotations, avoiding explanations of interpretations, institutions, and names, but focusing on correcting errors and supplementing historical records. He cited over one hundred and forty works from the Han, Wei, and Liu Song dynasties, with the text exceeding three times that of the original book, and the quoted sources were complete. What is more valuable is that most of the original texts have been lost, and thanks to Pei Songzhi's extensive citations, they have been preserved, allowing later generations to glimpse the original book. Sima Guang's description of the Battle of Red Cliffs in the "Zizhi Tongjian" was a synthesis of the relevant biographies in Chen Shou's "Records of the Three Kingdoms" and the historical materials cited in Pei Songzhi's annotations. Therefore, we can say that Chen Shou's "Records of the Three Kingdoms" is an important work for later generations to study the history of the Three Kingdoms, and Pei Songzhi's annotations are also important reference materials for studying the history of the Three Kingdoms.