Er Qu Ji: Li Xue Cong Shu

Author: Li Xiang
Publisher:
Publishing Date: 1996-01-01
Features: Li Xiang (1627—1750), styled Zhongfu, was a native of Zhouzhi (present-day Zhouzhi), Shaanxi. He was known as the "Master of the Two Curves" (Erqu Xiansheng) because the mountain bend was called Zhou and the water bend was called Zhi. Born in Guanzhong, he advocated teaching throughout his life and was revered by scholars in the region. Together with Sun Qifeng and Huang Zongxi, he was known as one of the three great Confucian scholars of the early Qing Dynasty and was one of the most influential educators during the transition from the Ming to the Qing Dynasty. The educational philosophy in The Collected Works of Erqu is rich and can be summarized in the following aspects.
(1) The "Theory of the Essence of Learning" (Xuesui), which combines the principles of Lu Wang's Mind School with the spirit of Cheng Zhu's Neo-Confucianism
The Essence of Learning in Volume 2 of The Collected Works of Erqu is a famous work of educational philosophy. The "Essence of Learning" refers to the true essence of learning, or the most essential purpose of learning. This treatise is a record of Li Xiang's lectures to his disciples, compiled and organized by his disciples. It includes illustrations and explanations, with the illustrations being self-drawn by Li Xiang. This Essence of Learning has illustrations and explanations, with a format similar to Zhou Dunyi's Commentary on the I Ching. The book is divided into two parts: one is the metaphysical theory of the mind-soul, which reveals the "true nature of the mind," and the other is the ethical cultivation theory, which reveals the "method of applying the principles."
In terms of metaphysics, The Essence of Learning holds that the "original nature of life" (also known as "spiritual origin") is the foundation of humans and also the foundation of all things in the universe. In reality, this "original nature of life" or "spiritual origin" refers to the "human mind." It is believed to "fill the universe, connect past and present, and never cease for a moment. Once this is understood, one can establish the universe, create all transformations, stand shoulder to shoulder with the sages of antiquity, and make the past and present one." This metaphysical theory inherits the "theory of the original mind" of Lu Jiuyuan and Wang Shouren's "theory of innate knowledge," advocating that the mind produces all things, and all things manifest the mind. This theory of mind-soul emphasizes the dominance of individual inner virtue in moral practice. "Everyone possesses this spiritual origin, innate knowledge, and innate ability, responding to sensations; in daily life, they are unaware, thus losing their way. Riding a donkey and seeing a donkey—this is why they are called the common people." It considers this original nature to be "non-action yet all-action," "all-encompassing in measure, all-illuminating in clarity, and perfectly appropriate in response." Therefore, The Essence of Learning proposes the view that "a thought without attachment to desires is the true thought."
The "thought without attachment to desires" refers to thoughts free from material desires, completely in line with "the principle of heaven." It is "singular and unique, not opposing anything," purely the principle, without the duality of principle and desire. The distinction between moral and immoral is not determined by external moral practice or results but by "the arising of thought," and only after thought arises are there distinctions between principle and desire." "If what arises is all good, expressed in words, seen in actions, it can be emulated, achieving great deeds, and praised for generations—yet this is not without effort. The nobleman does not engage in such actions." This is a thorough subjective moral philosophy that pushes the asceticist idea of "preserving the principle of heaven and extinguishing human desires" to an absolute inner tranquility, requiring scholars to "strengthen the root and preserve the truth," "forget both principle and desire, and let no fleeting thought arise, like a mirror reflecting, without welcoming or following." Only in this way can the original nature exist, and only then is it called "the ultimate learning." Only then is it called "great virtue nurturing transformation." Based on this understanding of the original nature, the theory of practice emphasizes the cultivation of mind-soul, which is very close to Wang Ren's "mind-purification" of the Ming Dynasty, Nie Bao and Luo Hongxian's "returning to tranquility," and Zou Shouyi's "caution of the original nature" in comparison to Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism. The starting point of this cultivation is abstinence, which is a crucial task for "manifesting the virtue of the mind." It requires unifying thoughts, preventing evil, maintaining vigilance, and preserving the solemnity of the moral spirit. The basic cultivation method is meditation. Why meditate? "When the water is clear, the pearl naturally appears; when the mind is clear, the nature naturally shines. Therefore, meditation must be the foundation." One is required to meditate three times a day: at dawn, noon, and midnight. Each time, a stick of incense is lit in front to make the mind both "tranquil, empty, bright, and still" and "active, empty, bright, and still," seeking "attaining harmony" in both the unmanifested and the manifested. It is believed that through the cultivation of meditation, once one reaches the state of "clear and bright, without internal or external objects," the original nature can be "repeated without limit, and motion and stillness are one," revealing the true nature of the original nature. "At this point, there is no distinction between sage and commoner, no need to resolve life and death." This is the realm of pure principle, free from human desires. The Essence of Learning considers this realm to be what the Six Classics, the Great Learning, the Doctrine of the Mean, the Analects, the Mencius, Zhou Dunyi's "establishing the ultimate," Cheng Yi's "recognizing benevolence," Zhu Xi's "maintaining reverence and exploring principles," Lu Jiuyuan's "establishing the great first," Wang Shouren's "extending innate knowledge," and Gan Ganquan's "recognizing" all describe. This is learning, this is the essence of learning.
In addition, even if one exhausts the classics of ancient and modern times, accumulating books to the point of filling archives, it cannot be considered learning, only "distracted by trivial matters and losing one's way." In summary, Li Xiang's Essence of Learning from the perspective of educational philosophy pushes the theory of mind-soul and the methodology of "preserving principle and extinguishing desire" of Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism to an extreme mystical subjective spiritual world. This is closely related to his decision to avoid the world through "cautious solitude" and refuse to cooperate with the Qing court, yet he could not find a place to settle his mind. In moral cultivation practice, both the theory and methods of The Essence of Learning are difficult to implement.
(2) The theory of mind-soul cultivation centered on "repenting of faults and renewing oneself"
The Sayings on Repentance and Renewal in The Collected Works of Erqu holds that human nature "obtains the principle of heaven and earth," "is fundamentally perfect and free from evil, and pure and free from flaws." However, it is gradually eroded and corrupted by "inherent dispositions, desires, customs, and the changing times," leading to a decline into "the petty person." Even if one becomes a "petty person," their "original nature" has not been extinguished. "Like a clear mirror covered in dust, the bright body is still present." As long as it is polished and cleaned, the dust and filth removed, it remains bright and lustrous, without loss. The way of learning throughout history, when discussing mind-soul cultivation, teaches people to polish and clean the mind-soul to see the mind and understand the nature. Based on this view, the Sayings on Repentance and Renewal points out: "Throughout history, famous scholars who advocated the way and saved the world are many. Some took 'maintaining reverence and exploring principles' as the core, some took 'establishing the great first' as the core, some took the spiritual essence of the mind as the core, some took nature as the core, some took restoring nature as the core, some took extending innate knowledge as the core, some took recognizing at every moment as the core, some took rectifying and cultivating as the core, some took knowing the limit as the core, and some took illuminating virtue as the core. Although the principles of each school differ, they all boil down to the four characters 'repentance of faults and renewal.' They all open the way for repentance and renewal." The theory of mind-soul cultivation centered on "repentance of faults and renewal" affirms the essence of human nature in its original state and believes that human nature can be changed through post-natal learning and education. However, it determines that "human desires" are absolutely bad and evil. To "preserve the principle of heaven and extinguish human desires," it advocates "restoring the body free from faults and returning to the path of constant renewal." Li Xiang points out that the Six Classics and the Four Books all teach the of "repentance of faults and renewal." As long as the emperor and the common people follow this principle, the goals of self-cultivation, family order, governing the state, and pacifying the world can be achieved. Therefore, "repentance of faults and renewal" is the fundamental knowledge of learning, "the key to the advancement of the sages, if one has no aspiration to be a person, then it is enough; if one truly aspires to be a person, one must learn from this." However, how to implement the knowledge of "repentance of faults and renewal" in mind-soul cultivation? The text points out that if a scholar studies this knowledge, they must "secretly examine and verify at every arising and perishing of thought. If there is a thought that is not pure in principle, it is a fault, and it should be repented and abandoned. If there is a moment of slight negligence, it is not renewal, and it should be awakened and revitalized. If one has not studied, they must first examine their own faults, then examine their faults of the mind, repent their past faults, and cut off future ones, also hoping to reach a state where no thought is impure and no moment is slightly negligent." This repentance of faults and renewal is entirely an internal self-examination and cultivation, a conscious method of binding oneself with the feudal moral spirit. It is believed that when repentance of faults and renewal reaches the extreme of mind-soul cultivation, "repentance leads to no more faults to repent, and renewal leads to endless renewal." As for the cultivation method of repentance of faults and renewal, it remains the same as The Essence of Learning, which is meditation. "If we pay attention to this learning and remain leisurely and forgetful, day after day, we are the same as those who have not studied, ultimately achieving nothing. Therefore, we must meditate. Meditation is the beginning of the foundation for the ancients to practice." Why meditate? Because "the principle of heaven and earth" does not gather or disperse, so without reaching the extreme of tranquility, one cannot achieve enlightenment. Moreover, "the boundary between faults and virtue lies in the subtle, and without precision, one cannot analyze it." Only through meditation, by eliminating distractions and bustling activities, can one "know the subtle" and achieve a pure "principle of heaven," understanding the mind and nature. The Sayings on Repentance and Renewal also lists many examples from ancient and modern times to encourage people, explaining that as long as one repents of faults and renews themselves, there will be an effect in cultivating virtue. In summary, the theory of mind-soul cultivation centered on "repentance of faults and renewal" mainly discusses the moral self-examination and cultivation methods of Neo-Confucian scholars of Song-Ming, aiming to teach people to eliminate human desires and fully consciously internalize the feudal moral norms of external relationships, "without shame before heaven and without regret before people," making them "complete people" or "sages."
(3) The theory of learning centered on "understanding the mind, comprehending the principle, and cultivating oneself"
A large portion of The Collected Works of Erqu explains the purpose and role of learning. In The Convergence of Words from the Two Schools, it points out: "Education must begin with schools; there is no education without it in schools. However, education is not about empty talk of principles; it is about understanding the mind and comprehending the principle." The mind is the same throughout history, but the purpose and nature of learning are fundamentally different. One is the "learning for oneself," and the other is "learning for others." The so-called "learning for others" not only pursues fame and profit, which are abandoned by the sages and sages, but even intelligence and talent are of no use." While "learning for oneself" is simply about understanding the mind, comprehending the principle, and cultivating oneself. Before the mind manifests, it must be nurtured; after it manifests, it must be examined. It is not outside the daily practice. It is about understanding and recognizing the principle of Confucian norms and ethics at every moment and in every place." Li Xiang believes that learning must take "learning for oneself" as the purpose and cultivate oneself to govern others. Because in this world, "one must have moral and professional achievements to establish oneself, and professional achievements to serve the world." Therefore, "the establishment of others and the promotion of others all depend on teaching; the transformation of customs and the pacification of the world all depend on teaching; the restoration of order and the of chaos all depend on teaching; the turning of the heavens and the earth all depend on teaching. Those who are above must be virtuous, and those who are below must be the people—none of this depends on this." If one is to understand "learning for oneself," one must know the distinction between the truth and falsity of learning. The Collected Works of Erqu criticizes the confusion of learning in later generations, the decline of education, "the supervision of fathers and brothers, the guidance of teachers and friends, the encouragement of officials, and the customs of disciples—all do not go beyond the composition of words and fame. Beyond this, they are ignorant of what schools are for and what reading is for." The confusion of learning makes "learning for others" kill the world and future generations with learning"; while "learning for oneself" is becoming obscure, "the mind is not upright," and "the governance and transformation are not flourishing." Therefore, The Collected Works of Erqu believes: "For today, the only solution is to clarify learning. If learning is clear, talent will flourish. If talent flourishes, customs will be rectified, and governance and transformation will be harmonious." The purpose of clarifying learning is to govern chaos. And "the governance or chaos of the world depends on the uprightness or corruption of the mind; the uprightness or corruption of the mind depends on the clarity or obscurity of learning; the clarity or obscurity of learning depends on the preferences of those in power." Here, Li Xiang attributes the clarity or obscurity of learning to the rulers' promotion of learning. He points out that what the rulers of recent times have paid attention to is nothing more than "examinations of composition and literature, providing food and rewards." In light of this, Li Xiang points out in Rectifying the Current Needs that: "The greatest root of the world is nothing more than the mind; the greatest key to the world is nothing more than awakening the minds of the people of the world. However, to awaken the minds of the people, nothing is more important than clarifying learning. This is the urgent task of the present day." What kind of learning does The Collected Works of Erqu advocate to "awaken the minds of the people of the world"? This is the so-called "learning of understanding the body and applying it." In The Answers from Zhouzhi, it points out: "Those who can govern all things and participate in the earth are called Confucians; those who practice the governance of all things and participate in the earth are called scholars." "The learning of the Confucian is the learning of understanding the body and applying it." Specifically, "in reality, the learning of the Way is the learning of Confucianism." To exhaust principles and extend knowledge, to return it to the inner, is to recognize the mind and understand the nature, to practice and verify in reality; to extend it to the outer, is to open things and achieve affairs, to benefit and rescue all living beings. This is called "understanding the body and applying it." In The Answers from Fuping, it is also pointed out: "The Six Classics and the Four Books are the learning of understanding the body and applying it of the Confucians." However, whether reading the Four Books and the Six Classics can achieve the purpose of "understanding the body and applying it" depends on the purpose and method of reading. If one reads without seeking to understand the body and apply it, even if the research is deep and the writings are rich, it is only a display of refinement and obscurity, dazzling the common people. For example, being detached from the, buried in interpretations, and constrained by the oral and ear of. These learning methods cannot achieve the purpose of "understanding the body and applying it." If one reads the Four Books and the Six Classics but cannot understand the body and apply it, the main problem in the method is seeking the "mixed." What is the "mixed"? It is "to knock it without being exhausted, to measure it without being deep, to see and hear it richly, but to deviate from the distant, this is mixed learning." Those who pursue mixed learning waste useful spirit on trivial matters, "internally unable to understand the way and preserve the mind, externally unable to govern the world and manage things, and it is only a waste of effort." These learning methods cannot understand the body and apply it, then where is the method? Although The Collected Works of Erqu was written in the early Qing Dynasty, when the Qing rulers vigorously advocated Cheng Zhu's Neo-Confucianism and fiercely attacked Wang Yangming's learning, while the scholars of that time vigorously belittled Yangming's learning. Li Xiang, however, believed that both Yangming's learning and Zhu Xi's learning were indeed "learning of understanding the body and applying it." The Answers from Fuping points out: "Later scholars did not learn Yangming's learning and Zhu Xi's learning well. They believed that Zhu Wang's learning was incompatible with water and fire, which is quite wrong. Yangming's learning has the function of understanding the body, and Zhu Xi's learning has the significance of applying it. Therefore, it is necessary to 'extend innate knowledge to understand the body, and maintain reverence and explore principles, preserve and cultivate, and examine to clarify' as the method. From the subtle of one thought to the extreme of caution, from hearing, seeing, speaking, and moving to the addition of cultivation, only then can the internal and external be fully achieved, and the principles of Yaojiang and Kaoting will not be biased. From learning downward to reaching upward, all is unified." Only in this way can one "understand the body and apply it." Li Xiang believes that whether learning can take "understanding the body and applying it" as the foundation is related to the brightness or obscurity of Confucianism. The brightness or obscurity of Confucianism is not only related to the prosperity or decline of the scholars, but is actually related to the well-being or suffering of the people and the rise or fall of the world. If Confucianism is bright, then the scholars practice the correct profession of understanding the body and applying it, with a firm position to stay and a purpose to go out, the people benefit from it, and how can the world not be prosperous? If Confucianism is obscure, then the scholars pursue the petty skills of writing and memorization, without a firm position to stay or a purpose to go out, the people benefit from nothing, and how can the world not be in decline?" Therefore, it can be seen that the theory of learning centered on "understanding the mind, comprehending the principle, and cultivating oneself" in The Collected Works of Erqu is the so-called "learning of understanding the body and applying it," and its role and significance lie in "governing chaos" and "awakening the people."
(4) The teaching content and teaching plan of "learning of understanding the body and applying it"
The Collected Works of Erqu divides learning into "understanding the body" and "applying it" in The Complete Learning of Body and Use. The works belonging to "understanding the body" include: The Collected Works of Xiangshan, The Collected Works of Yangming, The Collected Works of Longxi, The Collected Works of Jinxi, The Collected Works of Cihu, and The Collected Works of Baisha. They are considered "the essence of understanding the body within understanding the body." In addition, there are The Complete Works of the Two Chengs, The Complete Works of Zhu Xi's Speeches, The Complete Works of Zhu Xi's Collection, The Collection of Wu Kangzhai, Xue Jingxuan's Records of Reading, The Collection of Hu Jingzhai, Luo Zheng'an's Records of Overcoming Ignorance, Lü Jingye's Records, and The Collection of Feng Shaoxu. These are "the method of understanding the body." It is pointed out: "From Xiangshan to Cihu, the books elucidate the mind-soul, revealing all, and if one reads them, they can see the great source of this way. Then, read the records of Cheng and Zhu, as well as the collections of Kangzhai and Jingxuan, to complete the method of lower learning, to collect and preserve, to combine the method with the original nature, and to complete the source from the present. Lower learning and higher reaching, internal and external, beginning and end, all are unified, and only then can one achieve the actual." In addition to the above works, there are also The Collection of Zou Dongluo, The Collection of Wang Xinzhai, The Collection of Qian Xushan, The Collection of Xue Zhongli, The Collection of Geng Tiantai, The Collection of Lü's Sighing Words, The Collection of Xin Fuyuan, The Collection of Wei Zhuangqu, and The Collection of Zhou Haimen, which can also be used as reference materials.
The works belonging to "applying it" include: The Extended Meanings of the Great Learning, The Supplement to the Extended Meanings, The Comprehensive Examination of Documents and Records, Lü's Records of Practical Governance, Xin Fuyuan's Hengmen Gin and Jingshi Shuhua, Jingshi Qiaoyao, The Military Preparations, The Eight Principles of Jingshi, The Comprehensive Outline of the Zizhi Tongjian, The Grand Collection of the Ming Dynasty, The Collection of Famous Officials' Petitions, Laws and Regulations, The Complete Works of Agricultural Policy, The Complete Works of Water Conservancy, The Western Water Method, The Geographical Hazards, etc. It is pointed out: "The above works are all related to the economy, and it is necessary to immerse oneself in them one by one." From the above list of academic works, it can be seen that the "learning of understanding the body and applying it" advocated by The Collected Works of Erqu takes "the body" as moral and spiritual cultivation, and "the use" as governing the state and pacifying the world and its related politics, military, laws, agriculture, water conservancy, geography, etc. After each book, Li Xiang wrote comments, pointing out the nature and significance of each book, and its position in "understanding the body" or "applying it." These reflected Li Xiang's academic value orientation. Most obviously, he considered the works of Lu Jiuyuan, Wang Shouren, and others as "the essence of understanding the body within understanding the body," while only considering the works of the Two Chengs and Zhu Xi as "the method of understanding the body within understanding the body," reflecting his inclination toward the Mind School. In The Reply to Gu Ningren, a treatise on learning, Li Xiang pointed out: "To understand the way and preserve the mind as the body, and to govern the world and manage things as the use, then the body is the true body, and the use is the practical use." If one is to understand the way and preserve the mind, and also to govern the world and manage things, then to only distinguish between ancient and modern ambiguous words and phrases, to investigate etymology and grammar, or to seek between the ears and eyes, it is only to seek the superficial. Therefore, although Li Xiang extensively discussed the moral cultivation of the way and mind-soul, he was guided by the pursuit of practicality. Especially in "applying it," he included books such as Jingshi Qiaoyao, The Military Preparations, The Complete Works of Agricultural Policy, The Complete Works of Water Conservancy, The Western Water Method, and The Geographical Hazards in the range of teaching materials, which shows his genuine concern for practical learning. For example, the book Jingshi Qiaoyao involves content such as military settlement, water conservancy, salt policy, as well as national finance, selecting generals, training soldiers, vehicle design, and fire warfare. The Military Preparations includes the ancient battle formations and the art of war, among which The Art of War of Sun Tzu, The Art of War of Wu Tzu, The New Book of Military Training, and The Comprehensive Records of Military Training are all classic works of ancient military strategists. While The Complete Works of Agricultural Policy and The Western Water Method are all new books of science and technology of that time. He included these in the teaching materials, indicating that his "applying it" is guided by the pursuit of governing the world and achieving practical results. In The Order of Reading, Li Xiang listed a very detailed list for scholars, with a total of 34 books, and also mentioned dozens of reference books. The Collected Works of Erqu not only lists such a detailed book list but also points out the significance of each book, and in The Meeting Regulations of the Guanzhong College and The Learning Process, it included valuable teaching plans according to the depth, difficulty, and structure of the teaching content, as well as the teaching process and psychological characteristics of teaching, making specific explanations on the order of learning, knowledge and psychological preparation, and teaching methods. In terms of teaching principles, The Meeting Regulations and The Learning Process proposed "striving to seek novelty," "sitting silently and clarifying the mind," "self-examining and self-recognizing," "asking and thinking to clarify," "asking near and thinking," and "linking and cutting." The Collected Works of Erqu, as a classic work of ancient Chinese education, can be said to have unique ideological content and academic value. In terms of academic thought, it advocates the learning of understanding the body and applying it, the true body and true use, advocates learning to govern the world and manage things, advocates forming associations and societies, advocates taking governing the world and achieving practical results as the purpose of reading, and criticizes the empty and superficial learning style of scholars at that time. It has both the conservatism of a Neo-Confucian scholar and a focus on practicality. In terms of value orientation, it leans toward the Mind School, advocates the inclusiveness of learning, and transforms the content of education under the principle of understanding the body and applying it. These should be affirmed. However, the moral theories and moral cultivation methods of "sitting silently and clarifying the mind," "repentance and renewal," and "understanding the mind and recognizing the body" in The Collected Works of Erqu have a metaphysical and mystical color and a feudal asceticist essence, which are incompatible with the anti-Neo-Confucian enlightenment trend of the late Ming and early Qing Dynasty, showing its backwardness and limitations.