Selected Yuan Dynasty Opera -- Basic Collection of Chinese Family Books. Drama and Fiction Volume

Author: Wang Yunqi, commented by Wang Yin
Publisher:
Publishing Date: 2005-06-01
Features: In brief, the political struggles of the Yuan Dynasty society, the prosperity of urban economies, and the rich nourishment provided by various folk literary and artistic forms all contributed to the further development of the theatrical art form, as well as the efforts of many playwrights and performers, and the support of the broad audience—all these factors were instrumental in the rise of Yuan Dynasty drama. — Xu Fuming, The Art of Yuan Dynasty Drama
True Chinese theater began with the Yuan Dynasty's zaju (quyi). The emergence of zaju marked a new era in the history of Chinese theater. However, this zaju was not an accidental occurrence or the creation of a few genius playwrights. It gradually evolved from the storytelling and dance lyrics of previous generations in the folk. — Liu Dajie, The History of Chinese Literature Development
Yuan zaju, a theatrical art form of the Yuan Dynasty in China, was developed based on the foundations of Song-Jin zaju, integrating music, storytelling, and dance arts from the Tang and Song dynasties. Due to its singing in northern tunes, it is also known as northern tunes (Beiqu) or northern zaju. Yuan qu (including sanqu) is renowned in Chinese literary history alongside Tang poetry and Song ci, but it actually encompasses sanqu as well, not just zaju. The formation of Song-Yuan Nanxi and Yuan zaju marked an important milestone in the development of Chinese theater art towards maturity. Formation and Rise:
The formation and rise of Yuan zaju were influenced by numerous political, economic, and artistic factors. The intense ethnic and class conflicts led to the emergence of many rebellious plays. The development of industries and commerce in northern cities such as Dadu (Beijing), Zhending, and Pingyang provided material conditions and a mass audience base for the performance of zaju. With the prosperity of cities, especially the numerous "goulan" (entertainment districts) in the Song Dynasty, various artistic forms were brought together, fostering the growth of zaju as a comprehensive art form.
As is well-known, Jin yiban laid the foundation for the formation of Yuan zaju, which is reflected in the following aspects:
① Yuan zaju inherited the performance style of Jin yiban, where actors entered and exited through the upper and lower doors, establishing the unique sequential performance format of Chinese theater.
② Building on the role divisions of Jin yiban, Yuan zaju expanded them into dan, mu, wai, jing, and za, with dan and mu further subdivided, where Zhengdan and Zhengmu took the lead in singing, while jing retained its role in comedic performances.
③ Yuan zaju developed the performance techniques of Jin yiban, such as acrobatic stunts for wu roles and comedic skits for flower-face roles, enhancing the quality of performances.
④ The facial makeup and costumes of Yuan zaju were almost identical to those of Jin yiban, as evidenced by the puppet figures found in Jin Dynasty tombs unearthed in Shanxi in recent years.
Yuan zaju drew from numerous art forms, including acrobatics, dance, northern folk songs, and especially the structural advantages of zhongguantiao and changzuan. It integrated and absorbed these elements while inheriting the performance experiences of Song zaju and Jin yiban, creating a comprehensive and inclusive art form.
Performance and Actors:
Singing (chang), dialogue (yun), and performance techniques (ke) formed the core of Yuan zaju's performing arts.
Singing refers to vocal performances, where a single role might sing throughout, or the main character might change while the role remains the same, known as gaban or daoban, accounting for about one-third of performances. A single lead singer could focus on character development, making the main character more vivid.
Dialogue (yun) was secondary to singing, hence the term "binyu." It included poetic dialogues, instructional dialogues, and rhyming dialogues, characterized by simple language and a narrative style.
Performance techniques (ke) encompassed a broader range of elements:
① Acting movements, known as "shou'er" in Yuan times and later as "shenduan," such as the "sad performance" or "killing with an axe and cutting a banner."
② Martial arts, such as acrobatic stunts, flips, and swordsmanship, often seen in battle scenes or chaotic fights.
③ Interludes of dance and song, such as the dance scene in The Rain on the Willow Tree or the sorceress's performance urging wine, which were included due to their performance elements.
④ Effects, such as the sound of a swan's cry or the wind inside the hall, as the term "effect" did not exist at the time, so these were also included.
⑤ Stage management (jiance) was also categorized under ke, as Yuan zaju likely lacked dedicated stage managers, with minor roles handling these tasks, such as "setting tables" or "soldiers carrying props." However, the main focus remained on acting and martial arts.
Like the "jies" of Nanxi, the ke of Yuan zaju primarily used various body movements to virtually depict life, combining with props to create a dynamic interplay of reality and illusion. At the same time, it possessed a certain degree of formality, though not yet perfect, laying the foundation for the unique performing arts of Chinese theater.
Yuan Dynasty Theater Artists:
Generally referred to as "luchi," meaning they traveled from place to place, wandering and earning a living by performing. They were also called sanle, xingyuan, or leirén, with many names but essentially the same. Most lived in poverty, enduring humiliation, with some becoming entertainment items for feudal rulers, summoned to the palace and belonging to the jiaofang (imperial music bureau) and registered in musical households. According to the Green Pavilion Collection, a single troupe had over 100 female actors and more than 30 male actors, and with numerous troupes, the scale of actors was even more impressive.
They had fixed performance venues, either in goulan or temple stages, except for rural amateur firework performances. Professional actors were also specialized, some focusing on one or two roles, with some, like Hongzi Lier and Hualianglang, being skilled both in acting and writing scripts. Plays such as The Black Wind Storm, Wu Song Fights a Tiger, and Xue Ren Gui were created by these artists.
Writers and Works:
The history of Chinese theater saw the first verifiable authorial scripts with Yuan zaju. Before the Yuan Dynasty, there were 280 Song official zaju listed in The Old Events of Wu Lin, and 689 Jin yiban recorded in The Records of Farming While Resting, but none of these scripts have survived. Yuan zaju, however, was different. According to incomplete statistics based on existing records, in less than 100 years of the Yuan Dynasty, there were approximately 200 playwrights with known names, and about 730–740 recorded zaju scripts. These numbers far fail to reflect the actual scale of Yuan zaju creation, as there are still many anonymous writers and lost scripts.
However, only 208 complete zaju scripts and 29 fragments have been preserved, totaling 237 scripts.
Decline and Influence:
The direct cause of the decline of Yuan zaju was the southward shift of the theater center. The southern theater, which had been popular in the south, absorbed the strengths of northern zaju and broke the limitations of zaju's four-act, single-lead-singer format by singing in southern tunes, gaining popularity and making it impossible for northern zaju to compete. The internal reasons lay in the lack of anti-feudal revolutionary spirit in zaju works during the late Yuan and early Ming periods. Early Ming zaju gradually became confined to the narrow confines of the palace, with both content and performance becoming increasingly distant from the masses. The decline of Yuan zaju was an inevitable historical trend.
The historical role of Yuan zaju did not vanish with its decline. Some of its excellent scripts remained active on the theater stage for a long time, and its performing arts and creative experiences were inherited by later actors and writers. Together with Song-Yuan Nanxi, it laid the foundation for Chinese theater.