Muya Gongga – Kangba Culture Series

Author: Gong Boxun
Publisher:
Publishing Date: 2004-08-01
Features: For centuries, the mysterious Kangba has inspired the passionate yearning of many. However, due to its close proximity to Tibet and the constant attempts by external forces to interfere with Tibet, Kangba has become a sensitive part of the motherland, long hidden from the outside world and eventually becoming one of the last known mysteries, a virgin land yet to be explored. In Tibetan, "Kang" means "borderland," and "Ba" means "people." The Tibetan people primarily reside in Tibet and the areas bordering Qinghai, Yunnan, and Sichuan. Traditionally, Tibetans consider Lhasa as the center, the surrounding areas of Tibet as "ü-Tibet," the northern part of Tibet and most of Qinghai as "Amdo," and the vast Tibetan region encompassing Sichuan's Ganzi and Aba prefectures, Tibet's Chamdo region, Qinghai's Yushu prefecture, and Yunnan's Diqing prefecture as "Kang." The unique geological structure of the Kangba region has given rise to a special geographical environment, which in turn has fostered unique natural landscapes. The Kangba region is one of the world's rare plant kingdoms and a habitat for many rare animals, making it one of the most typical regions for biodiversity in China and the world. It is known as the "corridor of animals between the north and south" and the "center of species differentiation," as well as the world's largest primitive ecological park. Due to its location between Tibet and the interior, Kangba has long served as a link between the frontier and the interior, a bridge from the frontier to the interior. Over time, various ethnic groups and cultures have intermingled in Kangba, making it one of the world's few ethnic corridors. The Kangba Tibetans have thus become one of the most distinctive ethnic groups in the world, and Kangba culture has become one of the most unique cultures.
Where did the Kangba Tibetans come from? Contemporary academia offers various theories. Some say they are descendants of the Western Xia people, others claim they are descendants of the Qiang people, and some believe they are descendants of the Tubo people. In recent years, historians have uncovered new archaeological evidence showing that as early as the Neolithic Age, there was frequent human activity along the Yarlung River and Dadu River, which is now the Kangba region. Further archaeological discoveries have confirmed that whether from Sichuan's Ganzi prefecture, Karchu in Chamdo, or Qiayo in Qinghai, despite the considerable distances between these three locations, the Neolithic cultural sites unearthed from each place have all revealed the presence of tribal activities in the ancient Kangba region. These tribes were likely the indigenous people of the Kangba region, the ancestors of the Kangba Tibetans.
Historical records show that as early as the 4th century BC, the Western Qiang living in the Hehan area were forced to flee south due to the encroachment of powerful central Chinese ethnic groups. Some of them settled in the snow-covered grasslands of the Kangba region and merged with the indigenous tribes that had been living there since the Neolithic Age, forming a new ethnic group known as the "Maoniubu" or "Maoniuyi" in historical records. Historians have boldly inferred from archaeological findings and historical records that the Tibetans living in the Kangba region today are descendants of the same branch of the "Maoniubu" or "Maoniuyi." The Kangba Tibetans in Ganzi and Aba are descendants of one of the tribes recorded as the "Six Maoniubu" in historical texts.
Before the Tang Dynasty, the Kangba region was inhabited by various scattered tribes. These tribes were not subordinate to one another, and the rule of the central Chinese did not extend to the Kangba region. This area remained in a state of tribal fragmentation for a long time, with tribes living in a primitive, self-sufficient, and fate-dependent existence. With the rise of the Tubo in Tibet, their brave cavalry, known as the "horseback nation," crossed thousands of snow-capped mountains and hundreds of rivers, carrying scriptures and wielding swords, until they reached the east bank of the Dadu River. The weak tribes living in the Kangba region for generations were unable to resist the Tubo cavalry. Some refused to submit to the Tubo and fled in panic, leaving their ancestral homes along the Jinsha River and Yarlung River to seek protection from the central Chinese on the east bank of the Dadu River. The central Chinese settled these refugees in what is now Sichuan's Li County. Those Kangba Tibetans who did not want to leave their homes gradually merged with the Tubo people under their long-term rule. The remaining tribes of Kangba sought refuge in the remote, uninhabited snow-covered mountains, living in a secluded and isolated area while maintaining their ethnic identity and preserving the ancient Kangba culture, keeping it shrouded in mystery.
Since the Tang and Song dynasties, the Tubo and the central Chinese have engaged in centuries of fierce struggles for control over the Kangba region. The influence of both sides waxed and waned in the region. With the decline of the Tubo, their influence in the Kangba region faded, while the central Chinese, due to internal turmoil, had little time to pay attention to the Kangba region. The Kangba region thus reverted to tribal fragmentation, with tribes vying for dominance, leading to three centuries of tribal conflicts in the region.
For generations, the Kangba people have lived in the high-altitude plateau of Tibet, in the cold, mountainous gorges. To survive and thrive in such harsh natural conditions, Tsampa (roasted barley) and butter became their indispensable traditional foods. The long consumption of Tsampa and butter made salt and tea essential, but the Kangba region did not produce either. They had to trade horses, animal hides, and medicinal herbs with neighboring ethnic groups for salt and tea. This historical record of "tea-horse trade" became an essential exchange between the Kangba region and its neighbors, giving rise to the historical "Tea Horse Road." This road, originating in Chengdu, passed through the Kangba region and extended into Tibet, further reaching Nepal and India. It not only facilitated commercial activities between the Kangba region and the outside world but also promoted cultural exchange between the Tibetans and other ethnic groups, fostering mutual integration. Cultures from other ethnic groups blended into Kangba culture, and the veins of the merged ethnic groups flowed with the blood of different ethnicities. The Tea Horse Road became an important corridor for ethnic exchange.
During the Yuan Dynasty, the central Chinese not only transformed the Tea Horse Road into a major logistics route connecting the interior and the frontier but also used it as a channel for information flow between the central government and local authorities. With the rise of the Yuan Dynasty, the central Chinese implemented reforms among the Kangba tribes, enfeoffing tribal leaders as "tusi" to represent the central government in managing their tribes and paying taxes to the central. This system, known as the "tusi system," was followed until the Qing Dynasty.
For over a century, foreign powers have attempted to interfere with Tibet. Following the unequal treaties signed between the Qing government and foreign powers, imperialism accelerated its infiltration into Tibet. Amid internal and external crises, the Qing government established the "Amban" (Amban) in the court to strengthen its rule over Tibet, dispatched Sichuan troops to guard Tibet, opened two Sichuan-Tibetan roads in the Kangba region to supply troops and supplies to Tibet, and explicitly stated that "governing Tibet must first stabilize Kangba." It formally appointed a Sichuan-Yunnan frontier affairs minister to oversee the governance and development of the Kangba region. The Qing government established the "Military Food Bureau" in the Kangba region, replaced the tusi system with the appointment of officials, known as "gaitu liuchu," and revoked the Dalai Lama's authority over Xinlong in the Kangba region. It launched a series of military campaigns in the Sichuan frontier to suppress rebellions by tusi leaders, comprehensively promoting the political and economic development of the Sichuan Tibetan region, making it the "basis for governing Tibet."
In 1939, the Republic of China established the Xikang Province in the Kangba region. After the founding of the People's Republic of China, the central government merged Xikang Province into Sichuan Province and established several Tibetan autonomous prefectures in the Kangba region. Each autonomous prefecture implemented a high degree of political, economic, and cultural autonomy, protecting the interests of the Tibetans and preserving and developing the unique religious culture of Kangba, promoting comprehensive development in politics, economy, and culture within the region. This not only strengthened the central government's support for the development of Tibetan regions but also ensured the proper protection of the unique religious culture of the Kangba Tibetans, maintaining their distinctiveness.
The history of the Kangba Tibetans is also a history of religious evolution. The Kangba people generally follow Tibetan Buddhism, often referred to as "Lamaism," a branch of Mahayana Buddhism. The Tibetan word "lama" means "supreme" or "great teacher," a term of respect for Buddhist monks. Tibetan Buddhism gradually developed from the fusion of the indigenous religion of Tibet with the Buddhism introduced from the outside world, forming a unique religious tradition of Tibet. The ancient indigenous people of the Kangba region, isolated for centuries in the prehistoric era, could not explain the shapes of mountains and rivers, the changes in the sun, moon, and stars, or natural disasters like floods, droughts, and storms. The harsh climate of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau frequently brought disasters, and they could not find answers to why these disasters occurred, resorting to the worship of deities to explain these natural phenomena, becoming the "kding tribe." Unable to overcome the endless natural disasters, they sought the power of deities to resist the forces of nature, gradually forming a religion with elements of primitive religion known as Bon. Bonism sought to find reasons for everything unknown in the three realms, consulted oracles for auspiciousness or inauspiciousness, prayed for blessings or expelling evil spirits, and revered gods and exorcised demons.
After the 7th century, with the marriage of Princess Chenzun and Princess Wencheng to the Tubo king, the influence of Buddhism on Songtsen Gampo was profound. He had the Jokhang Temple and the Ramoche Temple built in Lhasa for the two princesses and sent noble youths to study scriptures in Tang and India. Buddhism thus spread to Tibet from both east and west, becoming the most influential religion in Tibet. As the power of Buddhism grew, it gradually spread to the Kangba region as well. Bonism, influenced and transformed by Buddhism, evolved into a unique form of Tibetan Buddhism with Kangba characteristics.
In the mid-9th century, the Tubo kingdom experienced internal turmoil. The last Tibetan king, Langdarma, assassinated Trisong Detsen and launched a large-scale suppression of Bonism in Tibet, which led to the collapse of the Tubo kingdom and the near-total destruction of Tibetan Buddhism. Those Buddhist monks who suffered persecution in Tibet fled in large numbers to the Kangba region, where they merged with the original Bonist sects, allowing Tibetan Buddhism to continue and flourish in the Kangba region. This marked the "Post-Dharma Flourishing" period of Tibetan Buddhism in Tibet. Tibetan Buddhism spread from the east bank of the Jinsha River to the banks of the Yarlung River. Historical records show that in 1132, the Nyingma sect (Red Hat sect) built the Gartok Monastery in Ganzi. In 1272, the Nyingma sect also built the Jingang Monastery at the foot of the Pony Race Mountain in Kangding. During the Yuan Dynasty, due to suppression by the Sakya sect, the Nyingma sect did not flourish in the Kangba region.
In 1639, Gushi Khan led his troops into the banks of the Yarlung River and actively supported the Gelug sect (Yellow Hat sect) in developing in Ganzi. The Dalai Lama sent people to Ganzi, where 13 temples, including the Dajin Monastery, were built, known as the "13 Monasteries of Hol." Tibetan Buddhism flourished in Ganzi, making the banks of the Yarlung River a paradise for Tibetan Buddhism. Another feature of Tibetan Buddhism in the Kangba region is the existence of numerous sects, but they coexist peacefully, with far less internal strife among Buddhist sects than in other regions. Over generations, Buddhism has taken root firmly in the land of Kangba, becoming the common faith of the vast majority of Kangba Tibetans and an integral part of their lives. Tibetan Buddhism continues to flourish in Kangba, making it a paradise for Tibetan Buddhists and a sacred place in their hearts.
Since ancient times, the Kangba region has been regarded by outsiders as a mysterious land. Many Chinese and foreign writers, scholars, tourists, and explorers, despite political prohibitions, the hardships of the climate, and the barriers of customs and language, have repeatedly entered the Kangba region through legal or illegal means, attempting to unveil its mysteries. Some even devoted their lives to their deep fascination with Kangba. The earliest foreigners to explore Kangba were likely foreign missionaries. According to the records I have seen, as early as 1892, the Frenchman Joseph Nideulong was appointed as the bishop of the Kangba diocese and came to the Kangba region to oversee church affairs in the Sichuan-Tibetan border area. In 1910, the Roman Catholic Church established the Xikang diocese centered in Kangding, overseeing the Kangba region, Sikkim, and the border areas of Yunnan. After the Qing government was defeated by the Eight-Nation Alliance, it lost its sovereignty and, according to the unequal treaties it signed, foreign missionaries and explorers seized the opportunity to infiltrate the Kangba region, collecting a wealth of little-known information. The most noteworthy among them is Joseph Rock, a reporter for the U.S. National Geographic magazine. In 1922, Joseph Rock was sent by the U.S. Department of Agriculture on a long and arduous journey to Lijiang, China. Later, he was hired as the exploration team leader for the U.S. National Geographic Society, embarking on a 27-year journey in the Kangba region, visiting almost every part of it. He continuously reported on the Kangba region, publishing the book "The Ancient Kingdom of the Naxi in Southwest China," becoming the first foreigner to systematically and comprehensively introduce Kangba to the world. The British writer James Hilton was so moved by Joseph Rock's reports that he wrote the novel "Lost Horizon" in 1933, which became the world's best-selling novel of the year. Hollywood quickly invested heavily to turn the novel into a film. The film was a huge success upon its release, and its theme song, "This Beautiful Shangri-La," became widely sung around the world. Kangba thus attracted the attention of the world, sparking a global craze for finding the "last Shangri-La," making Shangri-La a hot topic worldwide.
The first Chinese to explore Kangba in modern times were merchants from Shaanxi and Sichuan, who, with great courage, sought business opportunities in the Kangba region. Some who had no means to live in the interior also took risks to "pan for gold" in Kangba. The central Chinese repeatedly sent officials to the Kangba region, some of whom were insightful and cultured officials who recorded and reported many little-known customs, cultures, and major events in their memorials to the court, private notes, and letters to the outside world. Many Chinese writers, scholars, and explorers learned about the mysterious Kangba from the writings of foreigners and officials, thus braving all hardships to delve into the Kangba region for exploration and discovery. Since the 1920s and 1930s, numerous newspapers and magazines in China published reports on Kangba and published books about it, once sparking a "Kangba fever" in the country. However, due to reasons well known to all, from the 1950s to the reform and opening-up, not only foreigners with blonde hair and blue eyes but even Chinese scholars, writers, tourists, and explorers had no access to Kangba. It was not until 1998 that the Kangba region was fully opened to the outside world, finally revealing its mysterious veil to the world, reigniting the "Kangba fever" both domestically and internationally, making Kangba the focus of the world once again.
The Sichuan Kang-Zang Research Center, since its establishment, has been committed to inheriting and researching the achievements of its predecessors, coordinating and organizing research institutions and scholars both within and outside the province from multiple disciplinary perspectives to unveil the mysteries of Kangba and comprehensively present all aspects of the region to the world, pointing out the path to Kangba, helping people understand and love Kangba, and protecting its unique culture and beautiful natural environment.
For many years, Bashu Book Society has not only been dedicated to the of Chinese ancient books but also, in cooperation with research institutions and scholars, published many influential series, making significant contributions to the preservation and promotion of traditional Chinese culture.
This time, the Sichuan Kang-Zang Research Center and Bashu Book Society collaborated to organize specialized scholars to research and publish this series of Kangba cultural books. It is both an attempt by research institutions and publishing houses to popularize social sciences and an important step in unveiling the mysteries of Kangba. With long-term planning and support from all sides, we are confident that readers will love this series of books.