Western Civilization (Changes in Spirit and Institutions)

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Features: There is much debate and no consensus on the nature of civilization and its relationship with culture. These differing viewpoints, like clouds dispersing into mist, are largely attributed to the varying eras, cultural backgrounds, academic contexts, and research methods of the thinkers involved. Each perspective reflects the essence of civilization from a unique angle. We believe that there is no sharp boundary between civilization and culture; both serve as lenses through which observers and evaluators assess the overall goodness of human history. From the perspective of the entire history of humankind, culture precedes civilization. Civilization refers to the progressive state of human society, marked by the emergence of settled life and the invention of writing, signifying the dawn of the civilized era. Thus, the American scholar Lewis H. Morgan divided the development of human society after the origin of humankind into three stages: the savage age, the barbaric age, and the civilized age. Broadly defined, culture encompasses the sum of material and spiritual wealth created by human historical practices, such as material culture and spiritual culture. Civilization is a cultural group, and humans can be categorized into different civilizations based on cultural characteristics, much like how they are classified into different races based on physical traits. Civilization is the highest and most widespread standard for classifying human groups. It is defined by objective and shared elements, such as language, history, religion, customs, and legal systems.