Late Qing Academic Research Department

Author: Guan Xiaohong
Publisher:
Publishing Date: 2000-09-01
Features: The transformation of the political system and the renewal of education were the two major aspects of social reform during the late Qing Dynasty, marked by the New Policies. The Ministry of Education, situated at a pivotal position, reflected the extent and of political system changes in its establishment, decision-making, adjustments, and management, while also influencing the outcomes and limitations of educational renewal. The late Qing political reforms fundamentally transformed China's traditional six-minister administrative structure. The Ministry of Education was both closely linked to the old system and a part of the new system. Its emergence marked a breakthrough in the transformation of the central administrative system in the late Qing Dynasty, epitomizing the difficulties and complexities of the transition between the old and new systems and the direction of change. After two reforms in 1906 and 1911, the central administrative system of the Qing Dynasty gradually transitioned to a system of responsible cabinets, representing a major turning point in China's political system since the Sui and Tang dynasties. The main framework of the later political system was largely formed. After the reform, the internal and external operations of the Ministry of Education demonstrated its relationships with the court, various ministries, and local administrative bodies. This showed that the functions of the ministries had been expanded and strengthened compared to the past, but the division of authority between relevant departments remained unclear. In the process of friction and adaptation, conflicts of interest continued, and mutual shirking was severe. Meanwhile, the central administrative departments, in their pursuit of unification, clashed with the ever-expanding local powers. This internal strife not only reduced the efficiency of the ruling machine but also alienated the Qing Dynasty, leading to its rapid disintegration under the impact of the 1911 Revolution. Additionally, during the New Policies and constitutional reforms, due to differences in political views and perceptions of Chinese and foreign cultural concepts, the ruling group was divided into different factions. Zhang Zhidong, Yuan Shikai, and officials of the Ministry of Education had deep connections, thereby influencing the Ministry's major policies with their respective experiences and methods from the "Jili Model" and "Hubei Model" in education. Whether openly or covertly, they caused disagreements in many areas, leading to the Ministry's decisions and operations oscillating between innovation and retrogression, between radicalism and moderation, and thus resulting in phased changes in national educational development. Against the backdrop of "education saving the nation" becoming a focal point and a consensus among the public and officials, educational reform and development became a fundamental constraint affecting the scale, speed, and model of social transformation. As the first central administrative department in Chinese history to formally oversee national education, the establishment of the Ministry played a significant role in popularizing modern education, integrating Chinese and Western cultures, accelerating the rise and fall of knowledge groups, advancing the transformation of the political system, and even bringing about overall societal change. Under its leadership, the Ministry recruited talented educators from various regions, graduates of modern schools both domestically and abroad, and reopened the careers of reform-minded scholars dismissed during the Wuxu Reform. This gathered a group of reform forces at the center of educational affairs and connected them with social progressive forces. Combined with a personnel system that broke the mold and promoted individuals based on merit rather than academic background, the Ministry improved administrative efficiency. The reformist faction within the Ministry maintained communication with other government departments and societal reform forces through various channels, exchanging information and pooling wisdom. This made the Ministry's activities not only government actions but also aligned with the broader social reform and progress, reflecting and embodying the wishes and demands of reformist forces across society. This laid a solid foundation for learning from Japan and the West and coordinating the advancement of national education. In this regard, China's education and social reform in the early 20th century inherited the reform trends since the Self-Strengthening Movement and the Hundred Days' Reform, while also engaging all social strata and fields, with its significance far beyond the narrow scope of the New Policies. In just six years, the Ministry implemented a series of measures: establishing the educational purpose, setting up the central administrative structure with five divisions, twelve sections, two bureaus, and three institutes, and the local educational administrative institutions, formalizing the achievements of educational reforms since the Wuxu Reform, ending the dual-track operation of old and new educational institutions, and providing a crucial guarantee for the transition and connection of education after the abolition of the imperial examinations, as well as the development of education. This laid the basic framework of the modern Chinese educational administrative system. While implementing the "Regulations for Establishing Schools," the Ministry also revised and improved various regulations and laws, unified and planned the structural layout of education at all levels and types, established a policy to vigorously develop general basic education, encourage specialized and vocational education, and control the development of higher education, and formally included girls' education at the primary and secondary levels as part of the educational system, expanding the foundation of national education and practically supplementing and improving the modern educational system constructed by the "Regulations for Establishing Schools." The Ministry also began to pay attention to the balance between the quantity and quality of educational development, emphasizing the establishment and improvement of investigation and regulation systems to understand the dynamics and issues of educational development, track the new trends in education worldwide, and make timely adjustments. In terms of raising and using educational funds, reviewing textbooks, and managing overseas and domestic students, the Ministry emphasized both regulation and control, strengthening policy guidance and management supervision. It promoted and encouraged the construction of libraries, the invention of scientific theories, and the protection of ancient cultural relics, playing a leading role in the development of modern education and cultural affairs. As a result, the educational affairs during the Ministry period achieved both the transformation from old to new and maintained a high growth rate, not only promoting social change in other fields but also having a profound impact on education and educational administration in the Republican era. The late Qing New Policies faced much criticism, but the significant achievements in educational reform and development were recognized to a certain extent by contemporary figures, including revolutionaries, as well as later scholars. During the period of social transformation, the Ministry often faced dilemmas due to the conflicting and intertwined contradictions between old and new concepts, systems, and personnel. It was both a functional department of the Qing government and connected with the educational community through its oversight of national education. Although the Qing government was generally corrupt, education was an important aspect of its reform efforts. The Ministry, responsible for managing new affairs, had to continuously innovate and advance. These contradictions severely troubled the Ministry's decision-making and development. In terms of concepts, although the imperial examinations were abolished, the conservative forces continued to attack modern education, and proposals to restore them were frequently heard. Although the Ministry argued logically and firmly against the restoration of the imperial examinations, it could not resist the subsequent retrogressive tide. Despite widespread criticism in academia about the inclusion of Confucian classics in primary education, the Ministry hesitated to reduce the time spent on them. Even after the Central Educational Association resolved to abolish Confucian classics in primary education, the Ministry still dared not implement it, allowing Confucian classics to continue as a constraint on students' thinking and hindering the spread of modern education. In terms of systems, the New Policies reforms retained certain key aspects, leaving old contradictions unresolved while new ones emerged. First, the abolition of the imperial examinations did not introduce a new system for selecting and appointing civil servants, resulting in a mixed system of old and new in the Qing government's personnel management. Merits, official positions, examination promotions, and recommended scholars continued, leading to students chasing fame and fortune, pursuing unrelated fields, and causing a surge in redundant staff in various departments, which was criticized by public opinion as a "transformed imperial examination system" and causing great harm. When graduates from modern schools entered government departments, they faced an entrenched bureaucracy that remained unchanged despite the system's transformation, and their newly acquired knowledge seemed out of place. Those with imperial examination backgrounds thrived, while modern school graduates struggled, leading to doubts about the quality of modern education and a renewed affirmation of the functions of traditional education. The Ministry, using official performance as a reference, strengthened examinations to improve the quality of modern schools, but often unconsciously made the means the end, burdening students with frequent exams. Measuring teaching quality with a single standard, overemphasizing uniformity and standardization, and imposing too many restrictions, limited the autonomy and initiative of local schools. Second, although the political system had changed, the finances remained the same, with shortages and disorganized sources. The funding for traditional education was relatively fixed in the Qing fiscal system, but with the rise of modern education, the government's financial system remained unchanged, without setting aside funds for education or implementing a budget and final accounts system. The Ministry had to follow the old methods for new affairs, relying on the inheritance of traditional education funds and the funds of the Educational Affairs Office, patching together resources. The educational funds of provinces could not be classified as regular expenses but had to be managed individually. As a result, education, a major field of the New Policies, became "without rice in the pot" several times, with educational administrative institutions at all levels constantly struggling with financial shortages. With limited educational funds at both the central and local levels, the Qing court, in line with the constitutional reform process, continued to demand rapid expansion, issuing frequent directives to accelerate growth. It was not until the old system could no longer bear the heavy debt and the expanding new affairs, and faced a severe financial crisis, that the Qing government adopted a budget system to streamline finances and cut expenses, further exacerbating the already dire situation of the Ministry. In fact, before the revolutionary storm broke, education had already reached a dead end. Constrained by objective conditions, the Ministry's desire to implement various policies and measures often fell short of their actual effects. Promoting and encouraging vocational education, but failing to resolve relationships with other departments or manage it effectively, weakened the impact. Focusing on overall planning and coordination, but with insufficient quantity and quality of vocational and specialized education, the effectiveness of education in driving social development was not evident. Adhering to the popularization of basic education, although the development speed was fast and the proportion was relatively coordinated, with some improvement in quality, the total investment in education was too low to meet social needs. On the other hand, as a government agency, the Ministry's mechanisms of operation around the Qing imperial authority remained unchanged. In managing textbooks and students, it had to suppress democratic thought and students' consciousness and behavior while considering the scientific nature of educational management. During the constitutional period, popularizing education had to align with the Qing court's schedule while adhering to the laws of educational development. When political needs conflicted with scientific principles, the Ministry often found itself in a dilemma. If the conflict did not threaten the survival of the Qing Dynasty, its decision-makers could still adhere to scientific principles, but once it posed a threat, they would inevitably sacrifice scientific principles to comply with political needs, leading to the tragedy of education and the Ministry itself. The choice of textbook review standards, the retention of merit-based awards and real positions, the establishment of institutions to preserve ancient studies, the strict control over students' thoughts and behavior, and the obstruction of students' participation in political struggles all fully demonstrated the Ministry's subservience and attitude of upholding the Qing court. Once any major reform entered into motion, regardless of the willingness of the organizers, it would inevitably trigger profound social revolution, leading to institutional changes and conceptual updates in all fields, as well as adjustments in social relationships and the reorganization of power resources. Reformers who failed to keep pace with the times would inevitably see their motives and results diverge. Therefore, the educational reform led by the Ministry in the late Qing Dynasty, although successful and far-reaching, was not a sign of the success of the New Policies but rather a foundation for the establishment of a republic.