Selected Literary Theories of the Sui, Tang, and Five Dynasties

Author: Zhou Zuxen (compiles and selects)
Publisher:
Publishing Date: 1990-05-01
Features: Most literary theories from the Sui, Tang, and Five Dynasties periods originated from writers themselves, and their connection with creation was closer than in previous eras. According to traditional methods of classifying literary development, this period's literary theories can also be divided into six stages: Sui, Early Tang, High Tang, Mid-Tang, Late Tang, and the Five Dynasties, with the trajectory of their development roughly discernible. After the Wei and Jin dynasties, literature gradually moved toward elaborate diction, parallelism, allusions, and tonal patterns, with the style becoming increasingly "ornate." The (Emperor Jianwen of Liang) and (Emperor Puzhu of Chen), as emperors, promoted erotic poetry, which once led to a deviation in creative pursuits. However, as a whole, the literature of the Six Dynasties periods, as (Yao Xian of Song) said, "though it had its flaws, the works were remarkable" [1]. In the process of literary development, it held an undeniable historical position.
Emperor Yáng Jiān of the Sui dynasty seized power from the Northern Zhou and established the Sui dynasty, subsequently unifying the country and ending the long period of division since the Eastern Jin. This created favorable conditions for the exchange of literature between the north and south. However, the Northern Zhou, which the Sui inherited, was relatively dismissive of literature, and Emperor Yáng Jiān followed this tradition. This can be seen from the following facts: the Northern Zhou's Emperor Wén attempted to reform the "excessive ornamentation" in literary style, vigorously praising Su Chao's (great edicts) modeled after the (Book of Documents), and ordering that "all written works should follow this style" [2]; for example, renowned writers such as Wáng Yáng, Gǔ Xìn, Lǐ Dé-lín, Lú Sī-dào, Xuē Dào-héng, and Yú Shì-jī either came from the Liang or Chen dynasties or from Northern Qi, with almost none native to the Northern Zhou or Sui. Emperor Yáng Jiān himself was "displeased with poetry and books" and "lacked literary talent" [3]. Thus, in matters of literature, his policy of "practicing frugality and reducing corvée" corresponded with his advocacy of "discarding frivolity and suppressing artificiality" [4], even to the extent of punishing Sīzhōu's governor Sī Yòu-zhī for writing overly ornate official memorials. Under these circumstances, the essay on literature by Lǐ è, who had "planned the overthrow of the Northern Zhou and was highly favored by Emperor Yáng Jiān," was bound to align with the emperor's sentiments, harshly condemning literary creation.
In Lǐ è's essay, his critique of the formalistic tendencies of Northern Qi and Liang poetry had some merit. However, as a whole, the essay was nothing more than a declaration against literature. It not only blamed the "three emperors of the Wei dynasty for placing greater emphasis on literary skills and neglecting the duties of rulers, indulging in the petty art of carving insects" [5], completely ignoring the achievements of Jian'an literature, but also attacked "taking emotional expression as merit" and "using poetry and prose as the mark of a gentleman," adopting an indiscriminate and hostile attitude toward poetry and prose that expressed emotion. This was clearly a literary stance that defied the trend. Because it defied the trend, it had no practical effect in curbing the ornate literary style.
By the late Sui dynasty, Wáng Tōng, who was regarded as a "great scholar," advocated that literary theory should focus on Confucian ethics and the exposition of "the way of emperors." However, his views differed from Lǐ è's. He did not deny literature but opposed "writing without substance"; he did not oppose poetry but advocated that it should be "concise and regulated" and capable of reflecting the "feelings and nature of the people." Although it bore a strong utilitarianism and did not align with the literary trends of the time, it was still distinct from Lǐ è's stance. Precisely because of this, in the Tang dynasty, Lǐ è's views were rarely cited, while Wáng Tōng and his literary theories were often praised or referenced [6], showing the difference between the two.
In the Sui dynasty, literary theories that followed the historical trend of literature should be considered earlier than Wáng Tōng but later than Lǐ è, represented by Lǐu Shàn-jīng's (On the Four Tones). This book has long been lost but is frequently cited in the (On the Mysteries of the Secret Treasury of Literary Mirrors) by the Japanese monk Kūkai. Based on the title and the references to the (On the Four Tones), (Seven Types of Writing and Sentence Examples), (Twenty-Eight Types of Literary Flaws), and (Ten Advantages and Disadvantages of Literary Style) in the , it is clear that this was a work on the faults of tonal patterns. It inherited the theory of the four tones from Shěn Yuē and paved the way for 's (Ornate and Elegant Letters), contributing to the establishment of the rules of regulated verse. What is particularly noteworthy is that in the , Lǐu Shàn-jīng also expressed his views on the specific writing methods for different literary styles, including stylistic requirements, artistic conception, and structural composition. This should have had a positive impact on the development of poetry and parallel prose.
Overall, the Sui dynasty served as a transitional period from the literary theories of the Southern Dynasties to those of early Tang. As a representative of this transition, Lǐu Shàn-jīng's should be considered. As for Lǐ è's essay on literature and some of Wáng Tōng's literary insights, they were merely interludes that did not align with the literary trends of the time.
Two In the early Tang literary scene, the ornate style that had dominated since the Southern Dynasties still held sway. After Emperor Tàizōng of Tang (Lǐ Shìmín) ascended the throne, he took the fallen Sui as a warning, worked diligently, and became a renowned ruler. Yet he was also deeply fond of literature. To consolidate his rule, he repeatedly expressed his opposition to the "frivolous" style that offered no moral edification [7] and, in his (Imperial Capital Poem), openly declared his "refusal to seek ornamentation for the sake of reality or to let the people indulge in desires" [8]. However, deep down, he remained under the profound influence of the ornate style. He wrote a postscript to the (Biography) of Lù Jī in the (History of the Jin Dynasty), praising Lù Jī as "far surpassing Méi and Mǎ, excelling Wang and Lǐ, the literary master of generations, none but one" [9]; he had his own writings reviewed by , who was renowned for his "ornate and elegant literary style," and often asked him to compose follow-up poems, especially at banquets where often participated [10]; he even had (Yú Shìnán) compose responses to his courtly poems [11]. All these indicate that Emperor Tàizōng