A Critical Biography of Feng Youlan's Academic Thought -- A Series of Biographies of Famous Chinese Scholars in the 20th Century

Author: Song Zhiming
Publisher:
Publish Date: 1999-07-01
Features: Reviewing the development of Chinese academia in the 20th century, it can be said that: it was a productive century, an innovative century, and a glorious century. Over a hundred years, renowned scholars emerged, stars shone brightly, achievements were abundant, and new ideas were constantly introduced. Traditional Chinese scholarship underwent transformation, and Western scholarship was extensively introduced into China. Through the exchange, collision, and integration of Chinese and Western scholarship, 20th-century Chinese academic culture was born and rapidly flourished. Within a hundred years, new breakthroughs and significant progress were made in various academic fields, establishing a complete system of modern Chinese academic culture. Reviewing and summarizing the academic development of the 20th century, clarifying its right and wrongs, is a meaningful endeavor, an essential step to advance 21st-century academia and further construct socialist academic culture in China. Traditional Chinese academic culture has a long history, profound roots, and has achieved splendid results with substantial accumulation. It has long nurtured the Chinese people, shaping the character and spirit of the Chinese nation, and holds an important position in the history of world academic culture. However, since the mid-19th century, imperialist invasions brought Western academic culture to China as well. The spread of Western learning to the East went through several stages: first, the dissemination of material civilization, followed by the spread of institutional and spiritual civilization, until Marxism was introduced to China. Western academic culture is vast and far-reaching in influence. Upon entering China, it took root, blossomed, and bore fruit. It changed the direction and pace of development of Chinese academic thought and even the entire society, enabling China to transition from a traditional feudal society to a modern one. During this period, there were intense struggles and gradual integration between Chinese and Western studies, between old and new studies, and between traditional and modern scholarship. The 20th-century academic culture of China was born through this process of struggle and integration. The modernization of Chinese academic culture began with Yan Fu's translation of Western academic classics. In the late 19th century, he translated "Evolution and Ethics" by Thomas Huxley, introducing the theory of evolution to the Chinese people and bringing about a revolutionary change in academic thought. Later, he successively translated Adam Smith's "The Wealth of Nations," John Stuart Mill's "On Liberty," John Stuart Mill's "A System of Logic," Herbert Spencer's "Principles of Sociology," Montesquieu's "The Spirit of the Laws," John Stuart Mill's "A System of Logic," and George John Romanes's "Elementary Lessons in Logic." These were fields rarely studied or written about in traditional Chinese academia, allowing modern Chinese economics, political science, law, sociology, and logic to draw inspiration and develop. In 1901, Liang Qichao published "Preface to the History of China," explaining the difference between modern and traditional historiography: "As world academia advances, the role of modern historians differs from that of their predecessors. Earlier historians merely recorded facts, while modern historians must explore the relationships, causes, and consequences of these facts. Earlier historians confined themselves to the rise and fall of a few powerful individuals or families, though called history, it was merely a genealogy of a person or family. Modern historians must investigate the overall movement and progress of human society, the experiences of the entire nation, and their interrelationships." He passionately called for the revolution of historiography, believing it was a matter of great importance to the nation's survival. He said, "If the revolution in historiography does not occur, our country will be irredeemable. Among all things, this is the most important." At this time, Xia Zengyou wrote "New Middle School Chinese History Textbook," the first modern Chinese general history written in a chapter-based style. Other disciplines also entered the modern era at the beginning of the 20th century. In 1910, Shen Jiaben founded the Society of Law and the "Journal of the Society of Law," marking the beginning of modern Chinese jurisprudence; Wang Guowei and Luo Zhenyu's study of oracle bones unearthed at Yinxu can be considered the origin of modern Chinese archaeology; Zhang Taiyan's study of Indian philosophy and Wang Guowei's study of Schopenhauer pioneered the research of foreign philosophy by modern Chinese scholars; during the May Fourth Movement, Chen Duxiu and Hu Shi advocated literary revolution, giving birth to modern Chinese literature. Hu Shi wrote "Outlines of the History of Chinese Philosophy," the first analysis and study of ancient Chinese thought from a Western perspective. As for natural sciences, in the late 19th century, scholars like Li Shanlan, Xu Shu, and Hua Hengfang translated numerous works and laid extensive groundwork. In 1915, Chinese students studying in the United States founded the Chinese Scientific Society and launched the "Journal of Science," marking the gradual development of modern Chinese natural science research. The 20th-century Chinese academic culture was a product of the advanced intellectual class seeking salvation for the nation by looking to the West for truth. Western theories and numerous works surged into China like a flood released from a dam. Chinese scholars, rooted in their own foundation, selected, discriminated, and absorbed, creating academic culture suited to their time. As Chinese scholars, born and raised in China, educated within its borders, they were inevitably deeply influenced by traditional Chinese culture. The scholars of the 20th century, coming from the old era, were generally proficient in traditional Chinese culture. The fierce anti-traditionalists of the May Fourth Movement, such as Chen Duxiu, Li Dazhao, Lu Xun, Hu Shi, Qian Xuantong, and Wu Yu, strove to oppose and break away from the old traditions to fulfill their historical mission of discarding the old and embracing the new. However, the old traditions had alreadyed into their blood, making it impossible for them to completely sever ties with tradition. As they themselves said, they had fought their way out of the old camp and turned against it. Even "total Westernization" advocates like Chen Xujing could not escape the influence of the old traditions. As long as one is Chinese and has been educated in Chinese culture, it is impossible to completely the influence of Chinese academic culture. "Today's me" cannot entirely oppose and discard "yesterday's me." Similarly, no 20th-century Chinese scholar, no matter how conservative or stubborn, could completely oppose Western academic culture. The superiority and advancement of Western academic culture became increasingly evident, and people had to accept it to some extent. There were no people who completely opposed and rejected Western academic culture. Modern life, in terms of clothing, food, housing, and transportation, was largely influenced by the West. Western-style clothing, Western-style meals, Western-style houses, cars, and airplanes—Western civilization was everywhere. Whose life could be separated from these things? Mao Dun, in "Spring River," portrayed an old man from the countryside, stubborn and ignorant, who, upon arriving in Shanghai, recited the "Great Response to" but lived in a Western-style house and had to travel by car. The-dressed, retro-advocate Su Hongming was actually a university scholar with a comprehensive Western education. The major characteristic of the 20th century was the transition from conflict to integration between Chinese and Western cultures. People grew up in a cultural atmosphere that was both Chinese and Western, neither purely Chinese nor purely Western, but a blend of both. The struggle and integration of these two heterogeneous cultures would not end in a short time. Historically, the introduction of Buddhist culture to China underwent the Han, Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, Tang, and Song dynasties. Confucianism and Buddhism engaged in fierce struggles and mutual rejection before gradually integrating, giving rise to Confucianized Buddhism—Chan Buddhism—and Buddhistized Confucianism—Neo-Confucianism. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, Jesuits brought Western culture to China. Despite the support of figures like Xu Guangqi, Li Zhi, even the emperors Shunzhi and Kangxi, they faced strong resistance from Confucianism. After one or two hundred years, it faded away without taking root or bearing fruit. This shows that the integration of heterogeneous cultures, especially the birth of new academic culture through integration, is a long, slow, and arduous process. After the Opium War, the spread of Western culture in China marked the third time heterogeneous culture entered China, with greater momentum and far-reaching influence than the previous two. Due to the superiority of Western academic culture, traditional Chinese culture appeared inferior. By the end of the last century, in the clash between Chinese and Western studies, Chinese studies had been disorganized and defeated. It is necessary to learn from the strengths of Western studies, "taking the West as the teacher," and to recreate Chinese academic culture on its own foundation to rebuild it. Against this historical backdrop, through the unremitting efforts of Chinese scholars, 20th-century Chinese academic culture was nurtured, emerged, and displayed a new face and vigorous vitality. 20th-century Chinese academic culture, broadly speaking, has the following characteristics:
1. Guided by the theory of evolution and materialist history. Traditional Chinese academic culture praised the institutions and figures of ancient times, revered the sages and belittled the later emperors, considering Yao, Shun, Yu, Tang, Wen, Wu, the Duke of Zhou, and Confucius as the bearers of the Way. Believing that the ancient Way had been lost, the later generations engaged in oppression and strife, leading to societal decline. In the late 19th century, Yan Fu translated "Evolution and Ethics," and the principles of social evolution became popular nationwide, completely changing outdated concepts. The Chinese people came to understand how to observe and study human society from an evolutionary perspective, arriving at conclusions entirely different from those of the ancients. Thus, 20th-century academic culture abandoned traditional concepts and established modern new ones. Around the May Fourth Movement, Marxism was introduced to China, and advanced intellectuals grasped the scientific materialist history, further understanding productivity and production relations, economic base and superstructure, objective laws and subjective initiative in social development, etc. Academic culture research was guided by materialist history and scientific methods. 20th-century Chinese academic culture made significant progress. All 20th-century Chinese scholars believed in the theory of evolution. After 1949, Marxist materialist history held the dominant position, nurturing and fostering a large number of scholars under its guidance.
2. A new system of knowledge classification was formed. Traditional Chinese academic culture was divided into classics, history, philosophy, and literature, not strictly based on disciplinary classification. Among them, classical studies held the highest position and encompassed everything. The "I Ching" included mathematics, philosophy, and natural sciences; the "Book of Documents" included political science, history, and geography; the "Book of Songs" included literature, art, and natural sciences; the "Book of Rites" included political science, ethics, and pedagogy; the "Spring and Autumn Annals" included history and political science. Many disciplines were still in their infancy, yet to fully differentiate from the broad classical studies, with extremely blurred boundaries between disciplines. 20th-century Chinese academic culture flourished and became comprehensive, forming a new system of knowledge classification. Natural sciences adopted the academic achievements accumulated over centuries in the West and became an independent major. It was categorized into various branches, with numerous sub-disciplines established, including mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, agriculture, engineering, and medicine. These fields were numerous, rich in content, and reached a high level, benefiting national economic and social well-being. In the humanities and social sciences, literature, history, and philosophy were separated, forming their own specialties. New disciplines such as economics, law, pedagogy, sociology, journalism, political science, and psychology emerged and became independent. Due to the rapid progress of human society in the 20th century, people's understanding of nature, society, and themselves deepened, with knowledge and information quantities growing immensely. Academic culture became increasingly rich in content and expanded in scope, completely breaking the old framework of classics, history, philosophy, and literature, forming a new system of disciplinary classification for modern social sciences and natural sciences.
3. The application of rational methods. Traditional academic research methods were not precise enough, logic was not rigorous, and reasoning and judgment had a certain degree of subjectivity. Academic pursuits involved intuitive perception, deep contemplation, self-reflection, and self-cultivation. Certain non-rational methods, such as imaginative, intuitive, faith-based, speculative, and emotional approaches, as long as they could express the state of the research object—whether real or illusory—could form certain academic knowledge, such as ancient theories like the "Mythical Sea and Nine States" and the "Theory of" (Heaven and Earth Mutual Influence) and the "Theory of " (Clarifying the Mind and Realizing Nature). In the 20th century, Chinese academic culture introduced Western research methods, using induction and deduction, emphasizing evidence, and adhering to the principles of "without evidence, no belief" and "a single piece of evidence is not sufficient." Subjective biases were abandoned, and a calm, objective attitude was adopted to conduct specific and accurate cognitive activities on determined objects. In natural sciences, microscopes, telescopes, and other scientific instruments and experimental methods were used. In social sciences, research methods focused on investigation and collection of firsthand material. 20th-century academic culture pursued precise and specific understanding of the rich diversity of the real world, thereby recognizing its essence and laws. Modern academic culture values rational spirit rather than intuition, faith, or authority.
4. High-pitched patriotism. When China entered the 20th century, imperialist aggression became fiercer, and the oppression of feudal warlords and the Nationalist government became more brutal. Internal and external troubles plagued the nation, and people lived in hardship. 20th-century Chinese scholars witnessed the fragmentation of the nation and the suffering of the people, filled with deep compassion, awakening their sense of responsibility, and generously taking the salvation of the nation upon themselves. They diligently explored and dedicated themselves to research in various academic fields, all with the aim of saving the country. 20th-century Chinese academic culture was born and developed in the stormy years of hardship. The common strong desire of scholars in the 20th century was to oppose imperialist aggression and feudal oppression, to make the country prosperous and the people happy. Natural scientists hoped to save the country through science; economists through industry; pedagogues through education; political scientists through national prosperity and stability; philosophers through reviving the national spirit; historians through using historical experience to educate and mobilize the people; and writers through creating numerous heroic images of the Chinese nation who were unyielding in the face of adversity. 20th-century Chinese academic culture emerged alongside the nation's hardships, promoting the nation's progress, calling for national awakening, and inspiring the struggles of the masses. Therefore, patriotism permeated it, becoming its main spiritual support. 20th-century Chinese academic culture proudly waved the banner of patriotism.