I Ching (Basic Series of National Studies)

Author: Song Zeyin
Publisher:
Publishing Time: 2000-08-01
Features: Any phenomenon is constrained by environmental conditions. Without first clarifying when the Book of Changes (Zhou Yi) was written, it would be difficult to understand it. The traditional view holds that Fu Xi created the Eight Trigrams, and King Wen of Zhou developed them into sixty-four hexagrams, writing the divinatory phrases and line phrases, thus completing the Book of Changes in the early Western Zhou period. However, many modern scholars do not believe in Fu Xi creating the trigrams. The phrase "King Wen detained and developed the Book of Changes" is merely a personal opinion of Sima Qian, and the Book of Documents (Shang Shu) contains no records to support it. Instead, the Great Declaration states, "King Ning used divination." Therefore, it becomes impossible to claim that King Wen wrote a Book of Changes that, in terms of its compositional form and linguistic materials, followed the ancient divinatory texts. Moreover, many of the line phrases in the Book of Changes could not have originated from King Wen, further proving that the Book of Changes was not written by him.
For example, Hexagram 6 of the Ming Yi (Darkness) states, "Jizi's Ming Yi," which occurred after King Wu placed King Wen's wooden effigy on his head to observe troops at Mengjin. King Wen could not have known this in advance. Hexagram 9, fourth line of the Jia (Splitting Apart) states, "Leading sheep, regret disappears," which happened after the minor prince defeated King Wu and destroyed the Shang dynasty. King Wen could not have foreseen this either. Hexagram 6, fifth line of the Lu (Treading) states, "The warrior serves the great lord," which refers to the "usurpation of Bohe" in the late reign of King Li (as recorded in the Bamboo Annals). This is even beyond King Wen's knowledge. Since the Book of Changes was not written by King Wen, the traditional claim that it was completed in the early Western Zhou period becomes untenable. Recent scholars have proposed that the Book of Changes was compiled in the late Western Zhou period, a theory worth attention. The following arguments support this view.
Comparing the language of the Book of Changes with that of the Book of Documents (Shang Shu), the former is much easier to understand than the latter, which is notoriously difficult to read. For instance, Hexagram 2, second line of the Zun (Beginning) states, "A woman remains chaste for ten years before marrying," Hexagram 3, third line of the Sun (Decrease) states, "Three people walk, one is lost; one person walks, a friend is gained," and Hexagram 6, upper line of the Gui (Return of the Female) states, "A woman carries baskets with nothing inside; a man brings a sheep with no blood." These phrases are close to the written language of the Spring and Autumn period, suggesting that the Book of Changes was compiled in the late Western Zhou rather than the early Western Zhou.
As mentioned above, "the warrior serves the great lord" records events from King Li's reign. However, relying solely on this evidence is insufficient to conclude that the Book of Changes was written in the late Western Zhou period. Hexagram 3, third line of the Ming Yi (Darkness) mentions "hunting in the south," and the divinatory phrase of the Sheng (Rising) hexagram mentions "southern campaigns bring good fortune." Both suggest military campaigns against the southern state of Chu and the hope of victory. These events likely occurred after King Zhao's southern campaign failed to return (Zuo Zhuan, Duke Xi of Qi, Year 2) and King Mu's southern campaign ended in disaster (Han Yu's poem). At that time, it was already close to the late Western Zhou period.
Additionally, the Book of Changes is full of yin-yang concepts. Its sixty-four hexagrams are composed of yin and yang lines, yet the terms "yin" and "yang" do not appear anywhere in the text. It was not until the minister Guo Wen Gong of King Xuan's reign that the phrase "yin and yang are distributed, thunder rumbles" (Guo Yu from the Rites of Zhou) was mentioned. Therefore, the Book of Changes could not have been compiled during King Xuan's reign. It could not have been written before King Li, nor after him, but only during his reign. The Book of Changes was written for King Li, and this can be inferred from certain hexagrams as well. For example, Hexagram 2, second line of the Kui (Contradiction) states, "Meeting the lord in the alley," and Hexagram 4, fourth line states, "Meeting the great man." This implies that a minister (the great man) encountered King Li (the lord) in the depths of the palace. This is proof that King Li was imprisoned by warriors.
Another example is Hexagram 1, first line of the Ming Yi (Darkness): "A gentleman travels, three days without food, with a destination, the host rebukes." This suggests that King Li, while exiled to Zhu, suffered from hunger and was criticized by warriors as if by his host. Yet another example is Hexagram 9, fourth line of the Lü (Traveling): "Traveling in a place, obtaining the yellow axe," meaning that a person traveling in a foreign land still held the yellow axe (a symbol of authority). This even more clearly indicates that King Li, exiled to Zhu, was a traveling gentleman.
The Book of Changes reflects the author's hope for King Li's restoration and the revival of the Western Zhou. Hexagram 5, fifth line of the Qian (Heaven) states, "A flying dragon in the sky," and Hexagram 6, fifth line of the Kun (Earth) states, "A yellow robe, supreme auspiciousness." These are concentrated and vivid reflections of this sentiment, born from the author's love for his homeland, the Western Zhou. The author was also aware that King Li was an incompetent ruler and could not place much hope on him. A full hexagram is dedicated to criticizing King Li's serious mistakes. Hexagram 3, third line of the Jing (Well) states, "The well is cleaned but not drunk, causing distress; if the king is wise, we all receive blessings." This reflects the author's concern that King Li was not diligent in governance and was ignorant and tyrannical. Hexagram 1, sixth line of the Lü (Traveling) states, "A petty traveler suffers disasters, this is the cause of his misfortune." This even more severely criticizes King Li for lacking judgment, suppressing criticism, and monopolizing resources, leading to his own exile.
As for the Western Zhou's inability to be restored, Hexagram 6, upper line of the Feng (Abundance) states, "Great houses, but like mats covering them, dark and empty," metaphorically indicating the decline. Hexagram 4, upper line of the Yi (Benefit) states, "Benefit from moving the capital," clearly revealing that the Western Zhou would eventually be unable to withstand the pressure and move its capital elsewhere. These demonstrate that the author of the Book of Changes hoped for King Li's restoration, driven by his loyalty and patriotic heart.
To help King Li restore his throne and revitalize the Western Zhou, the author proposed certain theories and methods. First, strategy and tactics: King Li, being weak while the warriors were strong, needed to use tactics like "retreat to advance" and "delayed action." These included "softness overcomes hardness" and "weakness overcomes strength." These are the strategies the author hoped King Li would adopt, reflected in many hexagrams, with the Xiao Guo (Small Exceeding) hexagram being the most prominent. The divinatory phrase of the Xiao Guo hexagram states: "Suitable for small matters, not for great ones. The sound of flying birds should not ascend but descend, small overcomes great, and downward overcomes upward—great auspiciousness." This means one should remain small rather than large, and focus on the lower rather than the higher, to achieve victory through smallness and downward strength. This is the strategic effect of "retreat to advance" and "delayed action."
Second, using both force and persuasion: Conquering the warriors is the "force" approach, while appeasing them is the "persuasion" approach. Hexagram 6, upper line of the Xu (Need) states, "Entering a cave," suggesting the use of force against the warriors. Hexagram 2, second line of the Bi (Comparison) states, "Comparison from within," suggesting the need to appease the warriors. Since Xu comes before Bi, it indicates that force should be the primary approach, with persuasion as a supplementary measure.
Third, lenient policies: Hexagram 3, third line of the Song (Dispute) states, "Unable to dispute, return and escape, the three hundred households in his domain will not be harmed." This reminds King Li to adopt lenient policies to divide and weaken the warriors internally.
Fourth, strict rewards and punishments: Hexagram 9, upper line of the Song (Dispute) states, "Either given a sash or stripped of it three times in a day." This tells King Li to generously reward meritorious generals and severely punish those who fail, thereby boosting morale.
Fifth, seeking wise advisors: This is often illustrated in the Book of Changes through the metaphor of a man seeking a woman, such as the divinatory phrases of the Xian (Attraction) and Jia (Family) hexagrams.
Sixth, valuing the people: Hexagram 6, upper line of the Tong Ren (Fellowship in the Wild) states, "Fellowship in the wild," and Hexagram 9, upper line states, "Fellowship in the suburbs," both emphasizing the need to unite the people broadly to fight against the warriors.
Seventh, paying attention to moral governance: Hexagram 6, upper line of the Lin (Supervising) states, "By the eighth month, there will be misfortune," opposing brutal governance. The eighth month of the Zhou calendar corresponds to the sixth month of the lunar calendar, the time of scorching heat, making it an appropriate metaphor for tyrannical rule. Hexagram 9, upper line states, "Moral governance," meaning that one must govern with kindness and not oppress the people. Combining these aspects, the author of the Book of Changes advised King Li to reform and govern with virtue after expelling the warriors.
Eighth, carrying out reforms: Hexagram 5, fifth line of the Ge (Revolution) states, "The great man changes like a tiger," indicating that reforms would be carried out under King Li's leadership and achieve significant success. The divinatory phrase of the Ding (Pot) hexagram states, "Supreme auspiciousness, great fortune," suggesting that reforms would bring great prosperity and smooth governance. The revolutionary ideas in the Ge and Ding hexagrams were the tools the author of the Book of Changes advised King Li to use to revitalize the Western Zhou after his liberation.
The Book of Changes also introduces several philosophical concepts that served King Li's restoration and revitalization. These include fu (faith), zhong xing (middle action), dao (the Way), wu wei (non-action), and the theory of cycles.
Fu appears 42 times in the Book of Changes, mostly emphasizing the idea of "the ultimate sincerity can transform" (Zhong Yong, Chapter 23). A person with such faith is "never in doubt of great auspiciousness" (Yi hexagram, line 5), or "with faith in the heart, auspiciousness in all actions" (Kan hexagram, divinatory phrase), indicating that everything one does will be auspicious. This clearly shows that the author believed King Li, as the Son of Heaven, possessed such faith. This faith ensures that one's actions are just right, as seen in Hexagram 3, third line of the Yi (Benefit): "With faith, act in the middle." Zhong xing means acting in the middle, neither leaning too far left nor right, without excess or deficiency. A person with such virtue would naturally not be exiled but should rule the world. The Yi hexagram's zhong xing also serves King Li's restoration.
The Book of Changes generates dao from fu. For example, Hexagram 4, fourth line of the Sui (Following) states, "With faith, the Way becomes clear." This means that when faith exists, the Way becomes manifest—a concept that originated in the development of Chinese philosophy. Hexagram 2, second line of the Lu (Treading) states, "Walking the Way, the path is smooth; the secluded person finds auspiciousness in being virtuous." The secluded person refers to someone imprisoned, and at that time, King Li was indeed imprisoned. He achieved auspiciousness through the Way's assistance, meaning he was liberated with the Way's help. The "Way" in "walking the Way" does not refer to a physical path but to the great Way, as a prisoner cannot achieve auspiciousness simply by walking.
The Book of Changes also introduces the concept of wu wei (non-action). Hexagram 3, third line of the Da Zhuang (Great Strength) states, "The petty person uses strength, the noble person uses non-action." This contrasts force with non-action, demonstrating the correctness of non-action. Hexagram 4, fourth line of the Xiao Guo (Small Exceeding) states, "Going is dangerous, must be cautious, do not act, eternal sincerity is auspicious." This contrasts excess with non-action, again showing the correctness of non-action. Wu wei does not mean doing nothing, but acting in accordance with objective conditions, respecting reality in all things, and thus achieving success in all endeavors. The Book of Changes's wu wei is "doing all without acting," which originates from the strategies and tactics used against the warriors. Since gentleness comes after and strength comes first, they are close to non-action and "doing all without acting." Wu wei is also a weapon the author of the Book of Changes advised King Li to use in his struggle against the warriors, as respecting objective conditions was conducive to victory.
The Book of Changes also establishes the theory of cycles. The divinatory phrase of the Tai (Peace) hexagram states, "Small goes, great comes," meaning that when yin fades, yang arises. The divinatory phrase of the Pi (Stagnation) hexagram states, "Great goes, small comes," meaning that when yang fades, yin arises. Together, they show the cyclical movement of yin and yang. Applied to the rise and fall of a dynasty, this theory means that after prosperity comes decline, and after decline comes prosperity, with cycles continuing endlessly. Hexagram 9, upper line of the Qian (Heaven) states, "A group of dragons, none at the head or tail," metaphorically representing the cyclical rise and fall of the Western Zhou dynasty. After "the flying dragon in the sky," comes "the dragon with regret," and after that, "the flying dragon in the sky" again. Thus, King Li, after decline, could rise again, and the Western Zhou dynasty, after decline, could also rise again—this was the author's greatest hope.
However, according to the theory of cycles, King Li would continue to decline, and the Western Zhou dynasty would also decline again—this was not what the author wanted to see. Therefore, when applying the theory of cycles to King Li or the Western Zhou, the author only considered the cycle from decline to prosperity, no longer from prosperity to decline. Hexagram 5, fifth line of the Pi (Stagnation) states, "Rest from stagnation, the great man finds auspiciousness, will he lose his throne? Will he lose his throne?" The fate of the dynasty is like being tied to a cluster of mulberry trees—secure. These examples show that the theory of cycles in the Book of Changes only helps King Li and the Western Zhou rise from decline to prosperity, no longer caring about the cycle from prosperity to decline. In other words, it only moves from "the dragon with regret" to "the flying dragon in the sky," fixed and unchanging. Thus, the theory of cycles in the Book of Changes becomes a half-cycle theory.
However, the Book of Changes did establish the theory of cycles. The divinatory phrase of the Fu (Return) hexagram states, "Repeating the Way," clearly expressing this idea.
To properly understand the Book of Changes, one must discard two incorrect research methods.
First, the yao wei theory: This theory divides the six lines of a hexagram into yin and yang positions: the first, third, and fifth are yang positions, while the second, fourth, and sixth are yin positions. A yang line in a yang position is considered auspicious, while a mismatch is considered inauspicious. The Book of Changes is a political philosophy text with complex content, yet it imposes an artificial pattern on it, making it difficult to interpret. For example, Hexagram 4, fourth line of the Heng (Perseverance) states, "No birds or beasts are caught" (Xiao Xiang states, "Long in the wrong position, how can birds or beasts be caught?"). This is interpreted as inauspicious when a yang line is in a yin position (line 9 is yang, line 4 is yin). Hexagram 6, fifth line of the Da Zhuang (Great Strength) states, "Losing a sheep in Yi" (Xiao Xiang states, "'Losing a sheep in Yi,' the position is inappropriate."). This is interpreted as inauspicious when a yin line is in a yang position (line 6 is yin, line 5 is yang). However, a thorough examination of the Book of Changes shows that the yao wei theory does not hold in most cases. For example, Hexagram 3, third line of the Ji (Completed) states, "Gaozong conquers Guifang in three years; do not use petty people" (meaning that using petty people delayed victory, so it cannot be said that a yang line in the correct position is auspicious). Hexagram 6, fifth line of the Wei (Unfinished) states, "Auspicious with sincerity, no regret, the light of the nobleman, with sincerity, auspiciousness," meaning that the nobleman is correct and auspicious, with no regret and a bright future, all due to sincerity in the heart (so it cannot be said that a yin line in the wrong position is inauspicious).
Based on the yao wei theory, there is the xiang ying theory: the first line corresponds to the fourth, the second to the fifth, and the third to the upper. A yang line corresponding to a yin line is auspicious, while a yang line corresponding to another yang line is inauspicious. These also do not align with the Book of Changes. For example, the Tuan Zhuan of Hexagram 6 states, "Both yin and yang correspond—constant, constant, auspicious." This means the first line corresponds to the fourth, the second to the fifth, and the third to the upper. The corresponding lines are either yin and yang or yang and yin, all auspicious. The Tuan Zhuan of Hexagram 12 states, "Upper and lower correspond in opposition—neither interacting." This means the first line corresponds to the sixth, the second to the fifth, the third to the ninth, and the upper to the sixth. The corresponding lines are either yin and yin or yang and yang, all inauspicious. These are clearly not in line with the Book of Changes.
The Book of Changes itself proves that the xiang ying theory also does not align with the Book of Changes.
Based on the yao wei theory, there is also the de zhong theory. The "zhong" refers to the middle lines of the inner and outer hexagrams: the second of the inner and the fifth of the outer. A yin line in the second position is considered both "zhong" and "zheng" (correct), and a yang line in the fifth is also both "zhong" and "zheng," both highly auspicious. However, testing the Book of Changes shows that this is not the case. Hexagram 2, second line of the Tong Ren (Fellowship in the Wild) states, "Fellowship in the sect, inauspicious," and Hexagram 5, fifth line of the Lu (Treading) states, "Treading on the tiger's tail, being bitten is inauspicious," both inauspicious, not auspicious. The de zhong theory also does not align with the Book of Changes.
Based on the yao wei theory, there is also the guan xing theory. A yin line below a yang line is a correct relationship, thus auspicious; a yin line above a yang line is an incorrect relationship, thus inauspicious. This also fixes the relationship between lines in a rigid pattern, which does not align with the Book of Changes. For example, Hexagram 3, third line of the Lu (Treading) states, "Treading on the tiger's tail, being bitten is inauspicious," which is not auspicious simply because it is below line 4. Hexagram 4, fourth line of the Xiao Xun (Small Accumulating) states, "With sincerity, blood is removed, caution arises, no blame," which is not inauspicious simply because it is above line 3. The guan xing theory also cannot withstand the of the Book of Changes itself.
Additionally, there is the guan bian theory, which claims that changes in lines lead to changes in hexagrams. For example, the Zhuxi's Bai Zhou Ben Yi states, "From Gui Mei, line 3 rises to 4, line 4 falls to 3, becoming the Tai hexagram." This means line 3 of the Gui Mei hexagram rises to become line 4, and line 4 falls to become line 3, forming the Tai hexagram. A hexagram can also change from several different hexagrams simultaneously. For example, the Zhuxi's Bai Zhou Ben Yi states, "In terms of hexagram changes, it originally came from Guo hexagram line 2 falling to 1, also from Shi hexagram line 9 falling to 5, and also from Wei hexagram line 1 rising to 2, line 2 falling to 1, and line 9 falling to 5, and line 5 rising to 6." This means line 2 of the Guo hexagram falls to line 1, line 1 of the initial hexagram rises to line 2, line 9 of the initial hexagram falls to line 5, line 5 of the initial hexagram rises to line 6, etc., all forming the Sui hexagram. These changes are entirely without basis in the Book of Changes and serve as a distraction in its study.
Second, the divination theory: Divination uses changes in lines and hexagrams, which absolutely do not exist in the Book of Changes itself, to predict fortune and misfortune. This method of studying the Book of Changes first appears in the Zuo Zhuan, Duke Zhuang, Year 22, when the Zhou historian calculated the future for the younger son of Chen Li Gong: "Encountering Guan in Pi," meaning hexagram 6, fourth line of Guan changes to line 4, becoming Pi. The Zhou historian used the divinatory phrase of the changed line 6, fourth line: "The light of the state, using guests at the king's court," to conclude that the younger son of Chen Li Gong and his descendants would have a great future. The Zuo Zhuan and Guo Yu often used the Book of Changes for divination, and the Yi Da Zhuan's Xisi Zhuan and Shuo Gua Zhuan further promoted this idea. Does the Book of Changes engage in divination? From three perspectives, the answer is no.
First, the divinatory phrases of Hexagram 1, first line of the Meng (Beginnings) states, "The first divination informs, repeated divination is disrespectful, disrespectful means no information," and the divinatory phrase of Hexagram 2, second line of Bi (Comparison) states, "Origin, divination, eternal sincerity, no blame." These seem to support the idea that the Book of Changes engages in divination. However, apart from these two instances of "divination," the Book of Changes does not mention divination again. Moreover, many scholars believe that the "divination" in the Meng hexagram does not refer to divination but rather means "decision and research." For example, Chengyi's Yi Chuan states: "Divination refers to, not to using tortoise divination." Regarding the "divination" in the Bi hexagram, Kong Yingda's Zheng Yi states: "Divination means determining its meaning." In general, it is determined that the meaning of something is decided, which is unrelated to divination. The Book of Changes contains only these two instances of "divination," and neither refers to divination. How can it be considered a book of divination?
Second, the Book of Changes not only does not engage in divination but also opposes it. The divinatory phrase of Hexagram 5, fifth line of the Ge (Revolution) states, "The great man changes like a tiger, without divination, it is also believable." Saying "without divination, it is also believable" means the Book of Changes does not engage in divination. Since the Book of Changes does not mention divination and does not believe in it, later great scholars like Laozi, Confucius, and Xunzi did not consider the Book of Changes as a book of divination. Laozi's Dao De Jing fully inherits and greatly develops the Book of Changes, but not a single word mentions the relationship between the Book of Changes and divination. Someone once spoke of the Book of Changes to Confucius, who said, "It is not divination, just that" (Analects, Zigong). Xunzi also said: "Those who excel at the Yi do not divinate" (Da Lü). These are all proof that the Book of Changes does not engage in divination.
Most importantly, the most important thing is that divination based on the Book of Changes mostly involves changed lines and hexagrams, as previously cited, "Encountering Guan in Pi." However, a thorough examination of the sixty-four hexagrams and, plus the "Yong Ji" of Qian and the "Yong Liu" of Kun, reveals no signs that changed lines and hexagrams are part of the Book of Changes. These are only additions by later generations. The tenth chapter of the Xisi Shang states: "The Yi has Taiji, which gives birth to two instruments, two instruments give birth to four images, four images give birth to eight trigrams." This is traditionally considered the authoritative statement that the Book of Changes involves changed lines and hexagrams. It is said that the two instruments are yin and yang, the four images are old yin and old yang, young yin and young yang. Old yin is called six, old yang is called nine, young yin is called eight, and young yang is called seven. Six and nine can change, but eight and seven cannot. Since the Book of Changes calls yin lines six and yang lines nine, it also has changed lines and hexagrams. However, these claims are untenable, because the Book of Changes never had unchangeable young yin eight and young yang seven, so where did the corresponding unchangeable old yin six and old yang nine come from? The logic of calling nine and six old yin and old yang and changeable is untenable, as it is creating something out of nothing.
From the above analysis, divination is an external addition to the Book of Changes, but it was popular for over two thousand years and has done great harm to the Chinese people.
Finally, it must be pointed out that the Book of Changes is divided into the jing (classic) and the transmission (zhuan). The hexagram and line phrases are the jing, while the Tuan Zhuan, Xiang Zhuan, Yuan Wen, Xisi, Shuo Gua, Xu Gua, and Za Gua are the transmissions. They are related but also distinct and should not be confused. The transmission sometimes aligns with the jing meaning, such as the Tuan Zhuan of the Song hexagram stating, "Upper，，," and the Tuan Zhuan of the Fu hexagram stating, "Recover, auspicious, the yang line returns." However, many do not align with the jing meaning, such as the previously mentioned yao wei theory and divination theory. However, although the transmission largely does not align with the jing meaning, it sometimes correctly modifies or develops it, such as dao. The Book of Changes considers dao to originate from fu, which is idealistic, while the Xisi Shang, fifth chapter states, "One yin and one yang are called the Way," making a materialist transformation of dao.
Another example is the theory of cycles. The Book of Changes only presents a cycle of things, while the Xisi Xia Shang, fifth chapter states, "The past is，the future is，the interaction of ," incorporating contradictions into the cycle and developing it.