A History of Chinese Scholarship--Song and Yuan Volume (Volume 1 and 2)

Author: Zhu Hanmin
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Publishing Time: Not available
Features: The dual theory of human nature and self-cultivation in Shu Scholarship absorbed elements of Buddhist and Daoist thought. Shu scholars proposed a rich and unique theory of human nature, which stood in opposition to the Confucian scholars of the same era. In constructing their theory of human nature, Shu scholars drew upon the yong-yong (body-use) perspective of Xuanxue (Neo-Daoism) and Buddhist philosophy, believing that the body and use are inseparable, with the body being the essence and the use the manifestation. The body transcends words and images and is indescribable, while what can be described is only the manifestation of the body. In Su Shi's view, the metaphysical Dao resides in human nature, which belongs to the realm of the body and is therefore indescribable and beyond words. Su Shi pointed out, "Human nature can be known but not expressed in words. To express it in words is to falsify it." He believed that many people discussed human nature, but in reality, "those who speak of human nature are like telling the blind what they do not know. The blind have never seen, yet if one wishes to tell them about this object, they worry that they will not recognize it, so they describe it with another object. If one describes it with another object, it becomes another object, not the original one." ① He argued that such comparisons could only confuse people and could not truly reveal human nature. Therefore, "to speak of human nature in terms of what is visible is merely to resemble it." The true essence of human nature is always invisible. This definition of human nature undoubtedly resulted from the influence of Buddhist and Xuanxue yong-yong perspectives. The theory of human nature in Shu Scholarship was also influenced by the Daoist theory of natural human nature. The Zhuangzi states, "Human nature is the substance of life" ②, referring to the natural quality inherent in all things and humans. Human nature is the natural quality and instinct of humans, "desire and aversion, avoidance and pursuit, do not require a teacher. This is human nature" ③. In contrast, benevolence, righteousness, propriety, music, punishments, and rewards are distortions and deviations from human nature. Su Shi admired the Zhuangzi, and its theory of natural human nature had a certain influence on them. Although Su Shi did not oppose benevolence, righteousness, propriety, and music, he opposed Confucianism's use of good and evil to describe human nature, which attributed a priori moral attributes to it. They sought to eliminate all moral judgments about human nature, reducing it to a pure natural essence. Su Shi believed that human nature is the natural instinct of humans, such as hunger, thirst, and the desires of men and women. "No one in the world is free from the suffering of hunger and cold, or the desires of men and women. If one tells people that hunger leads to eating and thirst to drinking, and the desires of men and women are not part of human nature, is that acceptable? The world knows that this is unacceptable" ①, and this natural essence of humans has no inherent good or evil, "there should be no further discussion of good or evil" ②. From this, they criticized Mengzi's view of human nature as inherently good: "Good is the manifestation of human nature. Mengzi did not see human nature but saw its manifestations, and thus took what he saw as human nature. Human nature's relationship with good is like fire's ability to cook things. I have never seen fire but point to all cooked things as fire. Is that acceptable? Cooking things is the effect of fire." ③ Here, Su Shi regarded good as the manifestation of human nature, i.e., the visible external behavior rather than the nature itself. Similarly, Su Shi also denied the theories of human nature as inherently evil, as a mixture of good and evil, or as divided into three grades from the pre-Qin period, reducing human nature to a natural quality without moral attributes. Clearly, Su Shi's theory of human nature was influenced by the Daoist view of natural human nature and stood in opposition to the a priori moral theory of human nature in Confucianism. Zhu Xi therefore pointed out: "Su Shi does not understand that benevolence and knowledge are rooted in the heart, but considers them as delusions, thus embracing the doctrines of Buddhism and Daoism." Su Shi's theory of self-cultivation in Shu Scholarship was also deeply influenced by Buddhist and Daoist thought. Su Shi and his brothers experienced ups and downs in their official careers, facing repeated (bànjíe - demotions and exiles),， (kěwèi kùndùn kěkěn, bǎojīng fēngshuāng - truly experienced hardship and tribulation). Such life experiences led them to develop a deep interest in Buddhist and Daoist theories of self-cultivation.