History of Ancient Chinese Literature (Part 1)

Author: Guo Yingde Guo Chao
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Publish Date: 2003-09-16
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The Significance of Myths in Literary History
Mythical thinking is closely linked to the cognitive abilities of primitive peoples. In the eyes of primitive peoples, natural phenomena were just like themselves, possessing lively souls, wills, and emotions, capable of mysterious interactions with humans, and there was an interpenetrating relationship between humans and the external natural world. Myths were born from this perception of the world.
First, since primitive peoples had not yet completely separated themselves from nature, they often unconsciously projected their own attributes onto nature when perceiving it, forming a mythological thinking characteristic of viewing and perceiving the world through their own lens. For example, the famous myth of Pangu's creation of the world is based on the analogy of human body parts to infer various phenomena in the universe. Another example is from Shanhaijing·Overseas North Circuit: "The god of Zhong Mountain is named Zhuyin. His gaze illuminates the day, his closing of eyes brings night, his blowing brings winter, and his calling brings summer. He drinks neither water nor food, nor does he breathe, but his breathing becomes wind. His body spans a thousand li, located to the east of the uninhabited region. His form is that of a human face with a snake's body, red in color, and he dwells beneath Zhong Mountain. This myth explains the formation of day and night, seasons, and wind through human physiological behaviors. Viewing the world through one's own lens can also extend from the human body to human temperament, behavior, and familiar environments. For instance, to explain why many constellations shift toward the northwest and why China's geographical features are higher in the west and lower in the east, a myth states: 'In the past, Gonggong and Zhuanxu competed for the throne. In anger, he struck the mountain of Buzhou, causing the pillar of heaven to break and the of the earth to snap. The sky tilted to the northwest, so the sun, moon, and stars shifted accordingly. The earth was not level in the southeast, so water and dust gathered there.' (Huainanzi·Tianwen) Almost all myths permeate this way of viewing the world through oneself, as primitive peoples understood the external mysterious world through their own life forms.
Second, mythical thinking is concrete and imaginative. Since the abstract thinking abilities of primitive peoples were still in their early stages of development, their thinking could not yet detach from tangible objects. For example, primitive peoples used the changing positions of the sun in space to grasp time, leading to myths like "The sun rises in Yanggu and people enter Youyuan" (see Huainanzi·Shuolintun) Time's passage is explained in myths as concrete and perceptible plots. In myths, space is not purely a geometric direction; it is linked to certain specific emotional experiences. For example, the east is represented by the spring god Junmang, spring, green color, and wood, while the north is associated with the winter god Zhuanxu, winter, darkness, black color, and water. However, myths also contain synthesis and generalization of things, but mythical synthesis still relies on concrete images. For example, the dragon's origin was merely a totemic symbol of a snake-worshipping tribe, "accepting the four legs of beasts, the hair of horses, the tail of tigers, the hooves of deer, the claws of dogs, the scales and beards of fish," and eventually forming this majestic mythical image. Clearly, the dragon is not a purely imaginary product; it is merely a recombination of concrete images.
Third, mythical thinking is accompanied by intense emotional experiences. The mysterious and unpredictable nature of the great wilderness evoked fear, awe, or surprise in primitive peoples, who then attributed these emotions to the inherent properties of external objects. Thus, what primitive peoples encountered was a natural world imbued with language and emotion, and myths told stories of human interactions with the world. Additionally, the dissemination and retelling of myths were also filled with emotional experiences. For example, in Shanhaijing, whenever the images of dragons and phoenixes appear, they are accompanied by music and dance, showing a harmonious and joyful atmosphere; another example is the human-god romance in the Nine Songs of the Chuci, which stems from people's emotional yearning for mythical figures. However, as society developed, the emotions embedded in myths became difficult for modern people to understand.
From the above characteristics, it can be seen that mythical thinking is a symbolic and metaphorical form of thinking. Symbolism and metaphor refer to the connection between concrete images and specific meanings. As culture developed, people often used concrete images to represent certain characteristics or concepts when tracing history, summarizing experiences, and communicating ideas and emotions. For example, gourds and bird eggs were revered as symbols of maternal and reproductive in primitive belief systems; another example is the dragon, which was not only a tribal symbol but also embodied specific national spirit and deep national sentiments, becoming a symbol of national cohesion. This system of symbolism and metaphor regulated and maintained the relationships between people and nature, as well as among individuals within the collective, allowing every member to experience a shared collective consciousness and emotion. Primitive myths constructed the cultural community of primitive peoples through these different types of symbolic and metaphorical imagery.
Myths were the cognitive and expressive methods of primitive peoples, not conscious literary creations. Yet, myths occupied a very important position in the literary treasury. Chinese myths, with their profound and profound meanings and vivid expressions, laid the foundation for later literature. The influence of myths on literature is primarily manifested in two aspects: first, as material for literary creation, and second, as archetypes that directly influence the thinking methods, expressive techniques, and aesthetic effects of literary creation. In addition to being recorded by later generations, myths also provided material for various literary works. Myths entered poetry, such as the direct description of the miraculous deeds of Houji in Shijing·Daya·Shengmin, and the various deities in the Chuci. Later poets, especially romantic ones, often incorporated myths into their poetry. For example, Li Shangyin's poem "Yaochi" reads: "The mother of Yaochi opens her embroidered window, the song of 'Huangzhu' moves the earth with sorrow, the eight horses travel thirty thousand li daily, why does King Mu not return?" This is a masterful use of mythical imagery. Myths entered prose, with Zhuangzi being the most representative. Zhuangzi is renowned for its "ideas transcending the mundane, wonders born from the brush" and "ethereal and fantastical transformations" (Liu Xizai, Yigai·Wengai), largely due to the influence of myths. For example, the transformation of Kun and Peng in "Free and Easy Traveling" and the breaking of Hongjun in "Responding to the Emperor" imbue the entire work with a romantic and fantastical color. As for Cao Zhi (192–232), who used the image of the goddess of the Luo River, Fufei, to create the widely acclaimed "Luo Shen Fu," it was a successful literary creation based on mythical material. Myths were used as material in more novels and operas. They primarily drew on the extraordinary imagination of myths, using mythical figures or plots for recreation. For example, the Tang legend "Liu Yi Zhi Zhuan," the Qing novels "Liaozhai Zhiyi," "Jinghua Yuan," "Fengshen Yanyi," and "Hongloumeng," as well as the operas "Mudan Ting" and "Xi Qiang Ji" all contain mythical plots. The Qing and Ming mythological and demonic novels reached the peak of adopting and reshaping myths, with Journey to the West being the most representative. Sun Wukong, Zhu Bajie, and their ability to ride clouds and change into seventy-two forms became the most influential mythical images in Chinese literature. From Sun Wukong, one can see the influence of figures like Xia Qi born from stone, Chiyou with a bronze head and iron face, Xingtian who challenged the emperor, and the water demon Wuzhijie on this image. It can be said that ancient myths, as material, permeated every corner of classical Chinese literature. Through the excavation and transformation by literary artists, they re-emerged with brilliance in new works, giving literary works a unique artistic charm.
The symbolism and emotional nature of mythical thinking are also main factors in literature. Literary creation is essentially the objectification and materialization of subjective thoughts and emotions. Therefore, "for many writers, myths are a common factor between poetry and religion," and "the meaning and function of literature mainly manifest in metaphor and myth." Mythical archetypes provide a rich source of emotionally charged symbols for literary creation. As the concentrated expression of the ideology of primitive ancestors, myths embody the ancestors' thoughts and feelings about themselves and the external world. Mythical images contain rich emotional elements that have accumulated over history. Works that consciously or unconsciously use mythical archetypes can take the author or reader into the profound emotional experiences of primitive peoples, thereby alleviating the pressure of reality and transcending ordinary life. As Jung said, "A person speaking with primal images is speaking with the voices of millions. He transforms our personal fate into the fate of humanity, awakening in us all those compassionate forces that ensure humanity can always escape danger and traverse the long night."
When Qu Yuan (c. 339–278 BC) faced repeated setbacks in the real world, he turned to ancient myths: the dragon and phoenix teams touring the heavens, seeking women in all directions. The mythical world allowed him to transcend the real world and express his inner frustrations and vacillations. At the same time, the repeated use of fragrant grasses and beautiful women in Lieshao became a stable mythical archetype due to its mythical background and Qu Yuan's creative refinement, and was adopted by generations of writers, such as Cao Zhen's "Luo Shen Fu" and Li He's "Su Xiaoxiao Ji." Meanwhile, Pu Songling's (1640–1715) Liaozhai Zhiyi not only used myths as material but also as a spiritual refuge, expressing his rejection of the unfair real world and his return to the emotions and world of myths. It can be said that the works of Qu Yuan, Pu Songling, and others embodied the essence and measure of mythical archetypes.
Comparatively, the emotions and symbolism of myths are rooted in collective consciousness and carry more mystical connotations, while the symbolism and emotional expression in literary creation are more subjective and individualistic in color. The creator uses the emotional power of mythical archetypes to express personal sentiments.