Rubicon River - The Victory and Tragedy of the Roman Republic

Author: Holland
Publisher:
Publish Date: 2006-08-01
Features: The Rubicon River was the border between Cisalpine Gaul and Italy during the Roman Republic. In 49 BC, Caesar broke the law that prohibited him from crossing the border of the province he was stationed in and crossed the river to declare a decisive battle against Pompey, the Roman consul. Tom #8226; Holland, relying on Cicero's memoirs, letters, fragments of speeches, and other materials, depicts a vivid picture of the Roman Republic at its peak——this was a dramatic century, where the Romans, once proud of their rebellion against tradition, willingly abandoned personal freedom and bowed their heads to the emperor. – China Reading News The Rubicon River was the border between Cisalpine Gaul and Italy during the Roman Republic. In 49 BC, Caesar broke the law that prohibited him from crossing the border of the province he was stationed in and crossed the river to declare a decisive battle against Pompey, the Roman consul. The Rubicon portrays a vivid picture of the Roman Republic at its peak. This was the century of Caesar the Great, the ambitious conqueror who crossed the Rubicon and achieved greatness; this was the century of Cicero, whose eloquence for freedom made him the embodiment of the orator; this was the century of Spartacus, who dared to oppose tyranny; of course, this was also the century of the legendary Cleopatra. This was a dramatic century, Rome developed from a region into a superpower, and the Roman elite, once proud of their rebellion against tradition, willingly abandoned their past responsibilities and personal freedom to bow their heads to the emperor. Political conspiracies, the assertion of individuality, dramatic twists—all converged in the blood river of this century. However, since there is not much material left from this period, it is not easy to truly recreate this history with vivid language. Author Tom #8226; Holland had to rely on Cicero's memoirs, letters, and fragments of speeches. In fact, Holland brought those Roman strongmen—Sulla, Pompey, Caesar, and others—to life through the perspective of Cicero, this "supporting character." During the lightning war against the barbarians in Gaul, Caesar often took risks and appeared in unexpected places, delivering fierce blows to the enemy. Now that the life-or-death gamble has begun, he plans to use the same strategy against his compatriots. Caesar did not, as Pompey expected, wait for the reinforcements from Gaul to arrive and join him, but decided to take advantage of the effects of terror and surprise. On this side of the Rubicon, no one opposed him. Caesar's agents had been busy bribing the people of Italy. As soon as Caesar appeared, the border towns opened their gates to him. The road to Rome was easily open to him. At this time, the capital was still empty; Caesar continued southward. Flocks of refugees let Rome know about the lightning war. Their arrival made Rome also a refuge for a large number of refugees. The invasion from the north revived the ancient nightmare of the Republic. Cicero, with an indelible fear, kept watching Caesar's marching schedule: "Are we talking about a Roman general or Hannibal?" However, other ghosts from not-so-distant history also appeared frequently in Italy. Some farmers' land near the Maecenas Tomb; they claimed to see the stern old general emerging from the tomb. The center of the great arena was where Sulla's remains were burned, and people also saw his ghost here, constantly saying, "The prophecy of destruction." Just a few days ago, Rome was still so excited and confident. Pompey had promised them that defeating Caesar would be easy. Now, the war fervor had vanished. The senators began to worry whether their names would appear on Caesar's list of public enemies. They surrounded Pompey, and one senator openly accused him of deceiving the Republic and leading it to disaster. Another ironically asked him to stomp his feet and summon an army of thousands. But Pompey decided to abandon Rome and issued an order for the Senate to retreat. He warned that those who remained would be considered traitors. He went south, leaving the capital behind. The final ultimatum irrevocably led to the division of the Republic. Every civil war caused rifts among families and friends, but Roman society had always been refined and subtle in political loyalty, and despised the either-or stance. Many citizens found it unthinkable to choose between Caesar and Pompey. It was particularly cruel to some, as everyone watched them. For example, Marcus Junius Brutus (Marcus Junius Brutus) would do what? He was a fervent, loyal, and cautious man, closely connected to both sides, and his judgment carried great weight in people's minds. So, what would Marcus Brutus choose? Several factors encouraged him to join Caesar's camp. His mother Servilia was Caesar's close lover, and there were even rumors that he was Caesar's son. Whether it was true or not, his nominal father indeed died in the hands of Pompey in the civil war. People speculated that he would definitely stand with his mother and hate the person who killed her husband. But the former "young" Pompey was now a hero of the Republic, and Brutus was a very upright scholar who could not abandon the cause of justice. Although closely related to Caesar, he was closer to Cato, who was both his uncle and his father-in-law. Brutus followed Pompey's orders and left Rome. After a night of hesitation and inner torment, most of the senators did the same, leaving only a handful behind. In this city, there had never been so few administrative officials. Less than a week after Caesar crossed the Rubicon, the world had turned upside down. Of course, Pompey argued that abandoning the capital had sufficient military reasons—indeed, there were. Nevertheless, it was still a tragic and major mistake. The Republic was not an abstract concept; its vitality lay in the streets and public squares of Rome, in the smoke rising from the ancient temples, in the annual rhythm of elections. After being uprooted, could the Republic still understand the will of the gods? Could the wishes of the Romans still be understood by the gods? The Senate in exile, along with the vast majority of citizens, was cut off from contact; they could not follow Pompey in retreat. Once, a shared sense of community had bound even the poorest citizens together, but now, this sense of community had been discarded. No wonder the nobles were very worried about robbers and the anger from the slums when leaving their ancestral homes. If, as Pompey had promised, the war would end quickly, that would be fine. But the situation was clear: if anyone could win quickly, it was Caesar. As Pompey retreated to the south of Italy, the pursuers also quickened their pace. It seemed that the legions Pompey had summoned to defend the Republic would repeat the fate of Spartacus, being squeezed at the ankle of the peninsula. The only way to avoid this was to leave Italy. The Senate began to imagine the unthinkable: convening the Senate outside the Apennine Peninsula. Provinces were assigned to several key leaders: Cato received Sicily, Syria was given to Metellus Scipio, and Spain was assigned to Pompey. Thus, the masters of the Republic's fate would no longer rule from the cities that gave them status and position, but would govern like warlords among the distant, barbaric peoples. Their power would be backed only by force, just force. But then, what would distinguish them from Caesar? Whichever side ultimately won, how would the Republic be rebuilt? Those who still identified with the existing system were also tormented by these questions. Cato thought about the disastrous consequences of his gamble, grieving over every battle, whether victory or defeat. Clearly, this could not provide moral comfort to his followers. As for the moderates, they did not believe that the destruction of the Republic was justified, and they had no peace of mind. Cicero obediently followed Pompey's orders, but after leaving Rome, he completely lost his direction and became almost hysterical. For weeks, he did nothing but write a series of lamenting letters to Atticus, asking him what to do, where to go, who to support. He saw Caesar's followers as murderers and Pompey as an incompetent criminal. Cicero was not a soldier, and he clearly saw the disaster caused by abandoning the capital, believing it had cost him everything he loved, from his property to the Republic itself. "We wander with our wives and children like beggars, placing all our hopes on a man who falls ill every year. We were not driven out of the capital; we were summoned to leave the city." Cicero was always in such pain and distress, wounded and troubled. He knew that the other senators were about to learn something: citizens in exile were no longer citizens. After abandoning Rome, there was nowhere left to stop Caesar's advance. One attempt to resist Caesar had failed. Domitius Ahenobarbus, who hated Caesar and Pompey equally, directly refused the order to retreat. This was not because he had any outstanding strategic insight, but more due to his stupidity and stubbornness. When Caesar swept through central Italy, Domitius decided to block him at the key town of Corfinium. Forty years earlier, the rebelling Italians had made it their capital. That great struggle had not yet completely faded from people's memory. Although the Italians had gained citizenship, many still felt they could remain aloof from Rome. The cause of the Republic meant nothing to them, but Caesar was different. After all, he was the heir of Marius, who was the great protector of the Italians; he was also an enemy of Pompey, who was a disciple of Sulla. Ancient hatreds were revived, destroying Domitius's resistance efforts. In any case, Corfinium refused to sacrifice itself for Domitius. As soon as Caesar appeared under the city walls, it requested surrender. Seeing the five elite legions Caesar now had, Domitius's hastily assembled troops quickly agreed. The envoys sent and the intention to surrender were warmly welcomed by Caesar. Domitius was furious but had no choice. Dragged before Caesar by his own officers, he requested death. Caesar refused, and let him go. It seemed very merciful, but for a citizen, there was nothing more shameful than owing a life to someone. Domitius left Corfinium like a defeated rooster, dejected. If the roles were reversed, Domitius would have executed Caesar. To blame Caesar for his magnanimity was merely a tactic, though unfair to him, but it did indeed serve Caesar's current interests. It not only satisfied that indescribable sense of superiority but also helped reassure the moderates everywhere, letting them know that Caesar was not the second Sulla. Even the most stubborn enemies, as long as they were willing to bow their heads, would be forgiven by Caesar. He had no plan to publish a list of public enemies in the forum. Corfinium was in high spirits. Almost no one was proud of Domitius. Due to the conqueror's magnanimity, the townspeople and Domitius's hastily assembled troops were filled with joy. The news of "Pardoning Corfinium" spread quickly. Now, the large-scale resistance to Caesar had ended; Italy had no chance to stand with Pompey and wait for his rescue. As Domitius's troops turned to the enemy's camp, the Republic had even fewer soldiers left. The only stronghold was Brundisium, the famous port, the gateway to the East. Pompey was there, desperately collecting ships, preparing to cross the sea to Greece. He knew he could not risk a direct confrontation with Caesar, at least not yet; and Caesar knew that as long as he took Brundisium, the war would be over. Thus, a race against time began between the two sides. After leaving Corfinium, Caesar rushed south at high speed. Along the way, news came: half the enemy forces had already embarked under the command of the two consuls, while the other half, under Pompey, was still crowded in the port, waiting for the fleet to return from Greece. When Caesar reached the outskirts of Brundisium, he immediately organized his men to row flat-bottomed boats and build a dam to block the port. Pompey's countermeasure was to build three-tiered towers on the decks of merchant ships and sail them into the port, showering projectiles at Caesar's engineers. The battle continued for the next few days, with both sides struggling to throw stones, wood, and torches at each other. In the end, before the dam was completed, ships appeared on the sea, the Pompeian fleet had returned from Greece. They rushed into the port and successfully docked. Finally, they could leave Brundisium. The organization of the retreat was carried out with Pompey's usual efficiency. As night deepened, the oars of the fleet's ships cut through the water of the port. Hearing the warnings of their supporters in the city, Caesar ordered his men to storm the walls. By the time they entered the city, it was too late. Using siege equipment, they crossed the bottleneck of the port, but Pompey's ships had already disappeared into the night. Caesar's last hope of quickly ending the war was shattered. At this point, it had only been two and a half months since Caesar crossed the Rubicon. At dawn, the sea in the port was empty, and Pompey's fleet had vanished without a trace. The future of the Romans was not in their city, not in Italy; far beyond the silent horizon, the place that would decide their future lay in the barbaric lands far from the forum, the Senate, and the voting places. When the Republic was shaking, the whole world felt the tremor. P185-188