Disappearing Boundaries: How to Protect Our Planet in the Age of Globalization

Author: Hillary French
Translator: Li Dan
Country: United States
Publisher:
Publish Date: 2002-09-01
Features: Not long after, this farce was soon labeled the "Battle of Seattle." Perhaps this "war" marked a very important turning point. The Washington Post reported as follows: "If we can clearly see anything through the tear gas haze and broken glass on the streets of Seattle this week, it is that the core issues of the debate on free trade have changed. It is no longer a discussion about free trade itself, but has evolved into a discussion about globalization. Now many people believe that the process of globalization not only affects traditional economic factors such as employment and income, but also impacts the food people eat, the air they breathe, and the social and cultural environment they live in:" This meeting of the World Trade Organization sparked attention to environmental issues and the broader trend of globalization. These demonstrations went far beyond the protesters' initial goals. The debates surrounding the Seattle conference showed that 'globalization' has become a controversial issue. The controversy arises partly because the process has different meanings for different people. For some, globalization means stronger global cooperation, which extends far beyond national boundaries and affiliations. For others, globalization is a symbol of broader social and cultural integration, driven by the spread of the internet and mass media. At the same time, the process of globalization may also mean pollution, bacteria, refugees, and the blurring of international boundaries in other aspects. The development of mining and oil industries also threatens forests, mountains, water resources, and other sensitive ecosystems on Earth. Mining consumes enormous environmental capital. It not only destroys vast areas of land but also generates large quantities of pollutants and waste. For example, in the United States, producing 1 kilogram of gold leaves behind 3 million kilograms of waste ore. Major mining areas are often previously undisturbed forests and wilderness. According to the World Resources Institute, mining and energy development, along with related activities, are the second-largest factors, after logging, causing harm to marginal forests. The forest area affected by these activities accounts for about 40% of the total damaged forest area. Mining not only destroys valuable ecosystems but also harms the lives of local residents. It is estimated that 50% of the world's gold will be produced in inhabited areas in the next 20 years. Toxic byproducts from mining contaminate the water people rely on for survival, while mining itself destroys forests and farmland, which provide sustenance for human life. Industrialized countries are the main consumers of minerals. They account for nearly 100% of the global import of nickel. At the same time, their imports of bauxite account for about 90% of the world's total imports, zinc for 80%, and copper, iron, lead, and manganese for 70%. Developing countries, on the other hand, are the main exporters of minerals and face the greatest harm from mining. Overall, developing countries export about 76% of the world's bauxite and nickel ore, 67% of copper ore, 54% of tin, and about 45% of iron ore. In recent years, the rate of mineral extraction in traditional mining countries has slowed, but it has increased in many developing countries. From 1991 to 1999, investment in mining of non-ferrous metals in Latin America tripled, and similar increases occurred in Africa and the Pacific region. In North America, however, investment in this area has sharply declined. Currently, about 30% of spending on mineral development is in Latin America, making it the region with the highest investment in mining. In 1991, its share in global mineral development was only 11%. The U.S. mining industry has blamed environmentalists for this shift in investment. They complain that increasingly strict environmental regulations have made mining in the country both difficult and costly. However, the more important fact is that many mineral-rich countries are welcoming foreign investors into their mining industries with open arms. In recent years, about 70 countries have revised their mining regulations to encourage investment, while few have invested equally in strengthening environmental laws and their implementation. The history of human development has always been intertwined with the growth of food trade. In ancient Rome, grain imports from North Africa helped sustain the entire Roman Empire. During the 19th-century industrial revolution, Europe became a net grain importer, while the United States became the primary grain supplier to Europe. By the mid-20th century, North America exported 23 million tons of grain annually, while Western Europe imported 22 million tons each year. Meanwhile, Asia increasingly relied on grain trade, importing about 6 million tons annually. In the following decades, Australia and New Zealand became major grain exporters, while grain imports in Asia, Eastern Europe, the former Soviet Union, Africa, and Latin America continued to rise. The efforts of developing countries to reduce the use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) have been aided by the fact that many multinational companies have begun implementing ozone-protective measures in their overseas subsidiaries, similar to those used in their home countries. For example, in the Philippines, many foreign-funded electronic component manufacturers had reduced their use of ozone-depleting chemicals by 1995, which were previously commonly used as solvents. Similar progress was seen in Kenya between 1988 and 1993, where the use of these substances decreased by about two-thirds. At least part of the reason for this result can be attributed to changes in production processes by some multinational companies headquartered in developed countries. Although the progress mentioned above falls far short of the cooperation between North and South countries on ozone protection, these developments are still encouraging. The agreement requires developing countries to freeze the use of CFCs in 1999 and eventually eliminate them by 2010. As a whole, developing countries are leading the way on the schedule. Between 1986 and 1995, their use of CFCs and halons increased by 16%, but this trend was reversed in 1996, when CFC use dropped by 6%. Botswana, Cameroon, Colombia, and Malta have completely stopped using CFCs. It is reported that Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam have stopped using CFCs except for essential uses in refrigerators and other necessities. These facts in the protection of the ozone layer have reignited hope: the deadlock that developing countries have faced in participating in climate change treaties may be broken. In some cases, foreign investment has helped developing countries move toward climate stability. Let's look at the following example: compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs), once produced only in the United States, are now increasingly manufactured in developing countries. China produces about 100 million of these energy-saving bulbs, more than any other country. The funds and technology used to produce these bulbs in China come partly from joint ventures established by lighting factories headquartered in Hong Kong, Japan, the Netherlands, and Taiwan. Moreover, the CFLs produced by these joint ventures surpass those of domestic companies in some performance metrics, such as energy efficiency and durability. Now, some developing countries are also developing renewable energy industries. For example, India has become a major producer of advanced wind turbines. In the process of producing these products, they have received technical assistance from joint ventures and licensing agreements from companies in Denmark, the Netherlands, and Germany. Now, India is the fifth-largest wind power producer in the world, with a installed capacity of nearly 100 gigawatts. Although efforts to reach a political agreement with developing countries on climate change failed, many developing countries have already adopted creative policies and plans to move in this direction. In recent years, Brazil has stopped subsidizing the oil industry, saving about 4 million tons of carbon and more than $2 billion in funds. Mexico sold 1.7 million energy-saving CFLs, equivalent to saving 32,000 tons of carbon annually. Costa Rica has imposed a carbon tax of 15%, with one-third of the revenue used for reforestation projects for farmers. Perhaps the most encouraging news comes from China. It is now the second-largest emitter of carbon dioxide in the world. It is estimated that China may surpass the United States in the next 20 years to become the largest emitter. Over the past 20 years, China's carbon dioxide emissions have increased by an average of 4% annually, but this trend has been reversed in recent years. In 1998, China's carbon dioxide emissions decreased by about 3.7%, while its economy still grew by 7.2%. One of the main reasons for this reduction in emissions is the government's cut in subsidies to the coal industry, which amounted to $14 billion annually. Forming a Global Economy Favorable to Climate Stability Before the end of 2000, representatives from various countries worked hard to negotiate the details of the Kyoto Protocol. In this process, they clearly saw that climate change was far more difficult to address than ozone depletion. The production of CFCs is concentrated in a few large multinational companies, and it is relatively easy to convince them to transition to more beneficial chemical alternatives. In contrast, carbon dioxide emissions are byproducts of modern life, ubiquitous in every aspect. To effectively control carbon dioxide emissions, not only would deep technological transformations be needed, but a significant portion of billions of people would also have to change their lifestyles. In the United States, for example, the increase in car consumption and the expansion of living space are major contributors to rising carbon dioxide emissions. Although ozone depletion and climate change are vastly different issues, the Montreal Protocol provided some very crucial lessons for climate change action. During the negotiations to reach the Montreal Protocol, Richard Benedick, the U.S. chief negotiator, explained: "Manufacturers were very clear that if they continued to produce and supply CFCs, their sales would continue to decline. The agreement led private institutions to use creative thinking and substantial funds to seek solutions. The treaty fundamentally changed market rules, making it economically advantageous to find new alternatives." We have reason to believe that if the Kyoto Protocol is implemented effectively, it will have the same impact on the world's energy economy.