Centennial Commemoration: Political 1840-1945 Graphic Archive

Author: Liao Damao, Yang Huiguo / Country:
Publisher:
Publish Date: 2006-05-01
Features: Military discipline was lax and national defense was weak. The Qing government adopted a hereditary system for its army, where the entire families of the Eight Banners and Green Standard Army soldiers were supported by the government. This approach not only failed to ensure the quality of military personnel but also incurred high costs and low efficiency. By the mid-to-late Daoguang era, the Qing army had deteriorated to an unbearable state: "On land, they did not know how to fight or ride; at sea, they were unskilled in navigation and unfamiliar with artillery." It had transformed into an armed group described as "having commanders who could not be relied upon, and soldiers who could not be used"; "insufficient in warfare and defense, yet more than enough in harassing the people." China has both land and maritime borders. From Jilin and Heilongjiang in the northeast and north to the northern boundary of the northwest and the remote southwestern frontier regions, although "defense forces" and "garrison camps" were stationed, they were largely ineffective, barely better than nothing, and the fear of "being beyond reach" was pervasive. Maritime defense was only seriously addressed in the mid-1870s. During the Daoguang era, even before the Opium War, Russia repeatedly encroached on the northern borders, while Britain, aside from arbitrarily sending warships to roam the southeastern coast, also sent people multiple times from India to illegally cross borders into Tibet and other regions, which was also closely related to the neglect of national defense. Under an autocratic regime, major national policies are decided by the emperor alone, forming what is known as the "system of absolute imperial authority." The effectiveness of governance in state and military affairs fundamentally depends on the emperor's talent and moral character.
Before the Opium War, China was in the Daoguang era of the Qing Dynasty. After Emperor Jiaqing's "death," Manjing ascended the throne, adopting the era name Daoguang and thus also known as Emperor Daoguang, ruling for 30 years (1820–1850). Upon ascending the throne, Daoguang made "abandoning the superficial and embracing the substantial" his guiding principle. His 30-year reign as emperor was marked by diligence and frugality. He boasted: "Since ascending the throne, I have reviewed memorials and held audiences with officials, working day and night, for thirty years without fail, never allowing myself to indulge in leisure." Folk history says that Daoguang wore patched pants, and as a result, ministers imitated him, also "adding a round piece of silk to the knee." He had the determination to govern diligently and the will to rectify discipline. In punishing corruption, reforming the civil service, dredging rivers and improving water transport, clarifying salt administration, and promoting maritime trade, he achieved certain results. His greatest achievement was suppressing the unrest of the Hui people led by Zhang, consolidating Xinjiang. However, he lacked wisdom and courage, like his father Emperor Jiaqing, adhering to the principle of "not changing policies unless the benefits are certain." He also deeply feared the loss of power, always selecting those deemed "cautious and capable" to assist in governance, which resulted in "everything, no matter how trivial, being bound by unbreakable conventions." Although he had the desire to govern well, he failed to formulate or implement strong military and prosperous state policies. Additionally, he lacked the ability to recognize talent, as among the over 100 high-ranking officials appointed as Grand Secretaries and members of the Military Affairs Commission over 30 years, though some capable ministers were present—such as Song Yun, Ying He, Tao Shu, Ruan Yuan, and Lin Zexu—they all had the willingness to assist but were not given prominence, with Lin Zexu, who made significant contributions to the nation and the people, even suffering persecution. His most trusted were the petty, cautious, and skillful flatterers and sycophants. Cao Zhenyong and Mu Zhang'a were typical examples of this. P6