College Students' Introduction to World Classics

Author: Tan Haozhe, Yu Liangchun / Country: Mainland China
Publisher:
Publishing Date: 2001-04-01
Features: The Analects, a compilation of Confucius's words and deeds, was compiled by his disciples and later followers. The book primarily adopts the forms of dialogues and question-and-answer exchanges. The current edition contains over 12,700 characters and is divided into 20 chapters, each named after the first two or three characters of the chapter. The order of the chapters is as follows: Learned from the Book of Rites (Xue Er), Governance (Wei Zheng), The Eight Parts (Ba Yi), Ren in the Village (Li Ren), Gongye Chang (Gongye Chang), Yong Ye (Yong Ye), Spoken by the Master (Shu Er), Tai Bo (Tai Bo), Son of the State (Zi Han), The Village Party (Xiang Dang), The Advanced (Xian Jin), Yan Yuan (Yan Yuan), Zi Lu (Zi Lu), Xian Wen (Xian Wen), Wei Ling Gong (Wei Ling Gong), Ji Shi (Ji Shi), Yang Huo (Yang Huo), Wei Zi (Wei Zi), Zi Zhang (Zi Zhang), and The Day of Yao (Yao Ri).
Confucius (551–479 BC), styled Zhongni, was known as "Nifu" in ancient times and was a native of Zouyi (now Qufu, Shandong) in the late Spring and Autumn period. His ancestors were nobles of the State of Song, but due to turmoil, they fled to the State of Lu and became Lu people. Confucius was poor and humble in his youth but later worked as a clerk in charge of accounting and as a shepherd. At the age of fifty, he was appointed as the Minister of Justice in the capital of Lu and briefly served as the acting Prime Minister for three months. Later, he traveled to states such as Song, Wei, Chen, Cai, Qi, and Chu, promoting his political ideals and doctrines, but he was never fully recognized. In his later years, he returned to Lu and devoted himself to compiling ancient texts, editing the Book of Songs and Book of Documents, revising the Rites and Music, and compiling the Spring and Autumn Annals. He established private schools, attracted numerous students, and had over three thousand disciples, among whom more than seventy were renowned.
The Analects contains rich philosophical content, which can be summarized as follows:
1. The Thought of "Ren" (Benevolence). Ren is the core concept of Confucian philosophy. The book frequently discusses ren, and its meaning can be understood from various perspectives, but its essence is to represent human virtue. First, ren is fundamentally based on "loving others." When Fan Chi asked about ren, Confucius replied, "To love others." Loving others is a moral sentiment of empathy, which serves as the emotional foundation of ren. This love first manifests in caring for one's family, particularly filial piety and fraternal affection, which Confucius considered the root of ren: "Filial piety and fraternal affection are the foundation of ren." Second, Confucius emphasized extending love from oneself to others, from close to distant, and practicing the virtues of loyalty and forgiveness. To practice loyalty and forgiveness is to embody ren: "The benevolent person, wishing to stand, helps others to stand; wishing to reach, helps others to reach." "What one does not desire for oneself, should not be imposed on others." Third, ren is grounded in human emotions, but emotions are complex. If left unchecked, they may lead to evil. Therefore, Confucius also explained ren through the concept of li (ritual propriety), viewing emotions that conform to li as ren: "When Yan Yuan asked about ren, Confucius replied, 'To subdue oneself and return to li is ren.' If one can subdue oneself and return to li in a day, the world will return to ren."
2. The Thought of "Li" (Ritual Propriety). The book frequently mentions li, and some scholars consider it the core idea of Confucianism. Li represents the objective category of political and ethical relationships. It is both a regulation of political principles and a guideline for individual moral behavior. From the former perspective, Confucius revered the Zhou li: "The Zhou li draws inspiration from the three dynasties, how splendid it is in its culture! I follow the Zhou li." The Zhou li was perfect, and Confucius's lifelong ideal was to revive it. The primary function of li is to harmonize interpersonal relationships and achieve social harmony: "The use of li is valued for harmony, which is the beauty of the way of the ancient kings." Accordingly, Confucius advocated "governing with li" and "building the state with li," viewing li as the fundamental principle for governing and pacifying the world. From the latter perspective, Confucius demanded that people's behavior conform to li: "To stand on li," "Without li, one cannot stand." Li as a behavioral norm should not be merely formal: "Li, li—what does li mean? Jade and silk?" Li must be rooted in genuine emotions, so Confucius also enriched li with ren: "If a person lacks ren, how can li exist?"
3. The Thought of the "Junzi" (Noble Person). The junzi is the moral ideal that Confucius admired, representing the unity of ren and li: "If substance overcomes form, it becomes wild; if form overcomes substance, it becomes sterile. Only when substance and form are harmonious can one be a junzi." Substance refers to one's true nature, related to ren; form refers to the refinement of one's character through education, representing li. Ren is the inner aspect, and li is the outer aspect. When the inner and outer are combined, one becomes a junzi. Confucius placed greater emphasis on ren, referring to those with benevolent virtue as "renren" or simply "juni." "A junzi cannot abandon ren—how can he achieve fame? A junzi does not abandon ren for even a meal. In urgency or hardship, he must remain true to ren." A junzi achieves ren not through external coercion but through the internal demand of moral integrity: "Is ren far away? If I wish for ren, ren will surely come." A renren not only possesses virtue internally but also extends it externally: "Extending benevolence to the people and helping to benefit the masses." To achieve this is to become a sage. The sage is the ultimate stage of the development of a renren's character and the highest ideal.
4. The Thought of Spiritual Realm. Ren is not only a perfect moral character but also an ideal realm. Confucius evaluated his disciples by saying, "Hui also, his heart remained true to ren for three months. The rest of them only occasionally attained this state." The realm of ren is extremely high, and only Yan Yuan could maintain it for three months, while others could only occasionally reach it. Confucius described his own process of elevating his mind: "At fifteen, I aspired to learn; at thirty, I achieved stability; at forty, I was free from doubt; at fifty, I understood the will of heaven; at sixty, I was at ease with sounds and sights; at seventy, I followed my heart's desires without transgressing the bounds of propriety." "Following one's heart's desires without transgressing the bounds of propriety" is a complete understanding of benevolence and a complete understanding of the truth of the universe and life. When one reaches this state, they can attain freedom and eternal joy. Confucius often spoke of "le," referring to the joy of the mind.
5. The Thought of the Distinction Between "Yi" (Righteousness) and "Li" (Profit). The relationship between yi and li is a crucial issue in the Analects. Confucius valued yi and advocated "valuing yi above li." Compared to li, yi holds a higher and more important value. Therefore, Confucius promoted "thinking of yi when encountering profit" and "thinking of yi when gaining something," and he regarded whether one values yi or li as the standard for distinguishing moral high and low: "The junzi understands yi, while the petty person understands li." Confucius did not deny the legitimacy of li but emphasized that when yi and li conflict, one must prioritize yi: "Riches and honor are what people desire, but one should not seek them through improper means." He even advocated sacrificing one's life to uphold the value of yi: "A man of ambition and benevolence does not harm benevolence for the sake of life, but rather risks his life to achieve benevolence." Benevolence is where yi resides, and it should be protected unconditionally. This issue vividly reflects the moral sense of responsibility and mission in Confucianism.
6. The Thought of the Relationship Between Heaven and Humanity. In the Analects, "Heaven" carries two meanings. One is the natural heaven: "What does heaven say? It acts according to its own course, and all things are born." The other has a theological connotation: "To be guilty before heaven, there is no one to pray to." "Heaven abhors me! Heaven abhors me!" In this sense, Confucius essentially regarded heaven as the transcendent basis of human affairs. Therefore, he firmly believed in "ming" (fate) or "tianming" (heavenly destiny) and proposed the "Three Aversions": "A junzi has three aversions—aversion to the will of heaven, aversion to noble officials, and aversion to the words of the sages." He held a skeptical attitude toward ghosts and spirits but emphasized the importance of human affairs and the present: "If one cannot serve people, how can they serve ghosts? If one does not know life, how can they know death?" He considered "revering ghosts and spirits but keeping a distance" the wisest attitude.
7. The Thought of Education. Confucius was an educator, and his discussions on education have been highly valued throughout history. Although Confucius acknowledged the existence of "those who know without learning," he emphasized "learning to know" and believed that he himself was not one of the "knowers without learning" but rather "fond of the ancient and diligent in seeking knowledge." Therefore, he strongly emphasized "learning," "learning prevents stagnation," "learning and practicing in time," and "I once spent the entire day without eating or sleeping in thought, but it was of no benefit. Learning is better." He advocated learning with an open mind: "Not ashamed to ask the inferior," "In the company of three people, there must be a teacher for me. I follow the good and correct the bad." He established private schools and opened them to everyone, advocating "education for all, regardless of class," and said, "For those who present a bundle of dried meat, I have never failed to teach them." His attitude toward teaching and learning was: "Learning without fatigue, teaching without weariness." He emphasized the combination of learning and reflection: "Learning without reflection leads to confusion; reflection without learning leads to danger." He advocated heuristic teaching methods: "Do not enlighten when the student is not eager to learn, nor inspire when the student is not ready to express himself. If one cannot generalize from one example to others, they will not be taught again." Additionally, he required a sincere attitude toward knowledge: "To know what you know and not know what you do not know is true knowledge." "Hear much, keep doubts, speak cautiously."
The Analects is an important work for studying Confucian thought and the thought of the Confucian school. It holds a significant position in the history of Confucianism and even in the entire history of Chinese philosophy. During the Han Dynasty, when "the Hundred Schools were suppressed and Confucianism was the sole orthodoxy," it was revered as a classic. In the Song Dynasty, Zhu Xi compiled the Analects, Mencius, The Great Learning, and The Doctrine of the Mean into the "Four Books," which were even considered more important than the "Five Classics." After the Ming Dynasty, the "Four Books" were designated as essential content for the imperial examinations. The ideas expounded in the Analects permeate fields such as philosophy, culture, literature, education, ethics, history, and politics, and have deeply rooted in the collective consciousness of the nation, making it an important source of traditional culture. There are countless works on the Analects throughout history, some of the most important include He Yan's annotations, Xing Kai's annotations and explanations of the Analects, Zhu Xi's Collected Annotations on the Analects, Liu Bao'an's Correct Interpretation of the Analects, and Yang Bojun's Translation and Annotation of the Analects.
P13-16